Development of Gender Role Identity 1
Running Head: THEORIES OF GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Development of Gender Role Identity
Shanitha Naidoo
200504395
University of Johannesburg
Development of Gender Role Identity 2
Table of Contents
Page

Introduction
3

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
3

Social Learning Theory
4

Biosocial Theory
4

Kohlberg’s Cognitive development Theory
5

Gender Schema Theory
6

Integrative Theory
6

Gender Differences
6

Cultural Differences
7

Equality in Relationships
7

Changes in Gender Traits
8

Conclusion
8
Development of Gender Role Identity 3
Introduction
Gender role development refers to the process were children learn behaviours,
attitudes, interests emotional reactions and motives which are culturally defined as
appropriate for members of their sex (Katsurada & Sugihara, 2002).
Gender is one of the most earliest social categories that people apply to themselves and
others. Judgments made about the self relate to judgments made about ones gender. Gender
affects choices made relating to toy preferences, games and playmates. Boys tend to be more
rigidly gender stereotyped in early years but in adolescence, girls become more gender
stereotyped. This could be attributed to the heightened sense of self consciousness and the
media (Jackson & Warin, 2000).
Some theories attribute development of gender role identity to biology and role
models while others focus on cognitive processes. The most controversial theory was
established by Freud.
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
According to Freud gender role development occurs during the phallic stage where
children identify with their same sex parent (Shaffer, 2002).
The Oedipus complex occurs in 3-6 year old boys. Sons possess sexual feels for their
mothers and as a result resent their fathers who are viewed as their rival. The son fears that
his father will find out and castrate him. He then represses his feelings for his mother and
identifies with his father as a role model of masculinity. By identifying with his father the son
learns how to act as a man (Kaplan, 2000).
This is a unique way to interpret gender role development in boys. It is important to
note that this theory was based on a play by Sophocles. King Laius was told by the oracle that
his child will murder him and marry his wife so when Oedipus was born the king ordered a
shepherd to kill him. The shepherd could not do this and instead placed him in the care of
another king and queen where Oedipus grew up as a prince. He visits the oracle and is told of
Development of Gender Role Identity 4
his fate to avoid this he leaves. On his journey he meets king Laius, they quarrel and Oedipus
kills him. He then meets the sphinx a creature who asks travellers a riddle and if they cannot
answer it correctly she kills them. Oedipus solves it and the sphinx kills herself. Out of
gratitude the town gives Oedipus Jocasta (his real mother) to marry. They have two sons and
two daughters. Eventually Oedipus finds out what he has done and gauges his eyes out. This
act was interpreted by Freud as the equivalent of castration. Freuds personal experience
related to this play and therefore he based his theory on it. Many people believe it cannot be
generalised to every boy (Berstein, 2001).
Girls suffer from an Electra complex. Girls are originally sexually attached to their
mothers. However when girls realise they do not have a penis they blame their mothers and
shift their affection towards their fathers. To attract their fathers girls look at their mothers as
role models and develop feminine attributes (Kaplan, 2000).
This theory has been extensively criticised as there is not much evidence to support it.
One argument is that 4-6 year olds do not know the difference between male and female
genitals. Research shows boys form stronger bonds with fathers who are described as warm
rather than fathers that were threatening. This questions if boys identify with their fathers out
of fear of castration (Shaffer, 2002).
Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura states that gender role development is acquired in two ways. Firstly
children are rewarded and therefore encouraged to behave in a gender appropriate way and
punished for deviant behaviours. Secondly children observe and imitate attitudes and
behaviours of same sex models. Children observe role models (such as parents, siblings,
teaches and celebrities) behaviours and consequences thereof which leads to children learning
societal norms and expectations including gender appropriate behaviour. At about 5-7 years
children realise that their gender is a permanent part of their personalities and become more
attentive to role models especially models who are the same sex as them. Peers also play an
important role in portraying what is gender appropriate. The main criticism is that children
are described as passive pawns (Harris & Butterworth, 2002; Shaffer, 2002).
Biosocial Theory
There is no real biological approach relating to gender role development but there are
three factors that are important. 1-Males release a hormone testosterone and females release
estrogen. 2-Females have a more advanced central nervous system and bone formation. 3-The
Development of Gender Role Identity 5
Y chromosome in males contains less genes then the X chromosome. These factors influence
children’s gender development (Kaplan, 2000).
Behaviour theorists claim that differences between males and females are due to
learnt behaviours. From birth girls and boys are treated differently. For instance different
colours are associated with different genders. Interestingly there has been a reversal since
blue was originally viewed as delicate and dainty and therefore associated with girls and pink
was seen as a strong colour and more masculine (Chiu et al, 2006).
Boys generally are encouraged to participate in motor activities and are given more
freedom. Girls receive more affection and help when asked. Children’s development is
guided by observing role models and imitating them (Kaplan, 2000). Social scientists use
advertisements to study gender stereotyping in the media and unfortunately women’s roles
were narrowly defined (Milner & Collins, 2000).
The biological and social theories seem incomplete it is therefore beneficial to look at
a combination of both. A biosocial theory is more accurate in describing the development of
gender role identity.
According to Money and Ebrhardts there are a few critical episodes or events which
will affect an individual’s preference for a masculine or feminine gender role. The first is
during conception when females receive two X chromosomes and males receive an X and a
Y chromosome. The testes of the male embryo secrete testosterone and millerian inhibiting
substance which stops female organs from developing. Three to four months after conception
testosterone in males lead to the development of the penis and scrotum. In females the lack of
testosterone leads to the development of the labia and clitoris. Alterations also occur in the
brain and nervous system for example in males the brain will be instructed not to secrete
hormones in a cyclical pattern to avoid menstrual cycles at puberty. Once the baby is born
social factors influence the development of gender role identity. At puberty there is a large
amount of hormones released which stimulates the growth of the reproductive system, leads
to the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and the development of sexual urges. This
combines with an individual’s self concept as male or female to develop a gender role
identity and gender role preferences (Shaffer, 2002).
Males are more aggressive compared to females which can be attributed to the
hormone testosterone. This is some evidence for the biological view as there are certain
predispositions for different sexes to act in different ways. However society also plays a role
Development of Gender Role Identity 6
as sex changes performed before 18 months leads to less adjustment problems due to less
gender typing of original sex (Shaffer, 2002).
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Development Theory
This theory addresses the problem of social learning theory by stating that children
actively socialise themselves by looking for same sex models to gain gender appropriate
information. There are three stages to acquire a stable gender identity. Firstly by 3 years
children possess a basic gender identity and can accurately label themselves as a boy or girl.
Gender stability develops thereafter and lastly from 5-7 years gender consistency is achieved.
This refers to children realising that gender is stable across time and situations. Only after this
stage can children seek out gender appropriate information (Harris & Butterworth, 2002).
A problem with this theory is that it has been proven that 3 year olds already learnt
specific gender roles. Furthermore adjustments after gender reassignment is harder after three
years supporting the view that socialisation occurs by age three (Shaffer, 2002).
Gender Schema Theory
Carol Martin and Charise Halverson see children as highly motivated to acquire
interests, values and behaviours that are consistent with their self image as either a boy or girl
beginning at 3 years. This information is included in a gender schema. Schemas may be
simple containing gender specific objects, behaviours and roles. Children also construct their
own sex schema containing information which helps perform gender consistent behaviours.
Theses schemas help to process social information. By age 7 children develop strong
stereotype knowledge and preferences (Shaffer, 2002).
Integrative Theory
Different theories play apart in gender role identity development at different periods.
Biological development occurs before birth. The baby’s sex influences how the child is
labelled and treated accordingly. Early gender typing occurs due to reinforcement of same
sex activities. As a result by 3 years the child forms a basic gender identity leading to the
development of gender schemas. By age 7 gender consistencies is achieved. More attention is
directed towards same sex models. Children learn appropriate gender roles based on what
society portrays through gender curriculum (Shaffer, 2002).
Gender Differences
Girls show more variability in their sex type behaviours then boys (Chiu et al, 2006).
This refers to the fact that boys are under more pressure to conform to traditional gender
roles. This is harmful as men who are strained to pursue success and power and restrict
Development of Gender Role Identity 7
affectionate behaviour experience relational dread and feel emotionally adrift (Blazina,
2001). Therefore it is important for men to be involved in childcare as it encourages
sensitivity and nurturing.
Cultural Differences
Collectivistic societies such as those in India and China do not encourage
development of unique identities instead they focus on guidelines given by elders. Gender
roles in these societies are more defined and traditional in a sense. Women are mainly viewed
as housewives and men as providers. Conforming to these gender roles is vital and deviations
from the norm are associated with disgrace to your whole family. In contrast individualistic
societies place greater importance on a personal development of a gender role identity
(Gilani, 2005).
Many countries are trying to move towards a gender less society. However it is not as
easy as it seems. It is often necessary to enforce laws and accommodations for parents with
young children. Bailyn (1992) did a study comparing gender views in the US, UK and
Sweden.
In the US children are viewed as a private matter. Mothers do not get support from
government to help balance work and family life. There is a strong emphasis on work success
and as a result parents especially mothers experience regret.
In the UK priority was placed on family and organisations tried to accommodate but
work is still dominated by males.
Sweden is the most gender equal country. There is a consensus that women should be
in the workforce and men should be involved in child care. For example couples where the
women earn as much as the men receive tax benefits. Children are seen as the future success
of society and the governments provides day care systems to help parents.
Equality in Relationships
According to a study done by Knudson-Martin and Mahoney (2005) few couples can
be described as post gender who share all aspects of family life. Majority of couples belong
to the gender legacy category. These couples talk about being equal but majority of domestic
responsibilities lie with the women. The last group refers to couples who consciously
organise family life around gender and focus on traditional gender roles. Post gender couples
are often discriminated against for their views. Many men were not respected by their coworkers and were criticised if they needed to leave early to pick up their children. It is
difficult to sustain equality in relationships when society is against it.
Development of Gender Role Identity 8
Changes in Gender Traits
Sandra Bem believes that individuals from either sex may possess socially desirable
stereotyped traits of both males and females. Individuals for example may be assertive and
affectionate. This is referred to as androgyny and leads to healthier men and women.
Although this change can be seen in many individuals, society on the whole still has to
incorporate these changes and encourage it (Shaffer, 2002).
Conclusion
Although some theories on the development of gender role identity are outdated such
as Freud’s view, others such as the biosocial theory has some support. Gender roles differ
from country to country but a gender less society seems to be healthier.
Development of Gender Role Identity 9
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Development of Gender Role Identity 10
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