1) What was the available fossil evidence of common ancestors between modern apes & humans? What additional evidence showed the antiquity of humans?
2) When & where were these fossils discovered? Why were they significant?
Fossil Finds
Stone tools
Date of Discovery
1820s-40s
Neanderthal man 1856
Location parts of Europe
Germany
Cro-Magnon man 1869
Java man
Piltdown man
1891
1912
France
Southeast Asia
England
Taung child
Peking man
Homo habilis
“Lucy”
1924
1926
1960s
1973
South Africa
China eastern Africa eastern Africa
3) How did these fossils fit into the broader story of evolution? What were some major issues of debate in human evolution?
How did each develop & why? In what order?
Trees to ground dwelling? terrestriality
All fours to upright posture? bipedalism
Brain development & intelligence
Development of tools, morals, society encephalization civilization
4) What were the underlying assumptions made by those working on these questions? Was it a matter of “just the facts” speaking for themselves?
Widespread assumptions in early 20 th century :
Modern humans evolved in Europe and/or possibly Asia
Big brain

bipedalism

tool use

Excerpts from
“Stones, Bones, and Early Man:
The Search for Our Ancestors” by Kenneth F. Weaver
[from National Geographic (vol. 168, no. 5, November 1985)]
[In 1924], workmen excavating for lime blasted open the Taung cave [in South
Africa]. A stony cast of the inside of a skull caught the eye of a miner. This endocranial cast , which reproduced many of the convolutions of the brain, was partially encased in breccia (sand, rocks, and lime cemented together). The miner rescued the fossil and took it to the mine office.
Meanwhile, Professor Raymond Dart , head of the Anatomy Department at
Witwaterstrand, had asked to see any fossils found at Taung. And so, a few days later, two cases of breccia blocks were delivered to Professor Dart at home, just as he was putting on a morning suit for a wedding at which he was to be best man.
With mounting excitement Professor Dart examined his trove, despite the pleas of the groom, and his wife’s admonitions that he would be late for the nuptials. Nothing showed in the first box. But in the second lay the brain cast, and close by was a block into which the cast fit perfectly. Then, in his mind’s eye, Dart saw fit—the face of the Taung child itself, in fact hidden by its hard, rocky matrix .
“I stood . . . holding the brain as greedily as any miser hugs his gold . . .,” Dart wrote later. “
Here, I was certain, was one of the most significant finds ever made in the history of anthropology .”
The wedding reception over, Dart immediately began the tedious and delicate task of freeing the face and lower jaw of his fossil. Lacking the tiny vibrating drills available today, he used his wife’s knitting needles . . .
The brain cast was too large for a baboon . The canine teeth were not fang-like .
The skull would have been balanced on the spinal column in such a way that posture was upright , quite unlike the four-footed posture of a baboon or chimpanzee.
This, Dart believed, was an early ancestor who had been bipedal
— had walked on two legs . Dart named it Australopithecus africanus
, or “ southern ape of Africa
,” and announced his discovery in the British journal Nature . Overnight the 32-year-old
Dart was a celebrity. But from the scientific establishment came ridicule and

stony resistance. Anthropologists dismissed the Taung child as “just a somewhat beat-up chimpanzee.”
In truth, Dart’s missing link was anatomically inconvenient, with its small brain, low forehead, and small humanlike lower jaw. According to the prevailing idea of the day, primitive man should have had a big brain and an apelike jaw with big front teeth . And to prove it, Britain had its famous Piltdown skull discovered in
1911, with a high forehead, big brain, and large canine tooth . . .
Twelve years after Dart’s discovery a Scottish physician and paleontologist, Robert
Broom , found an adult skull of the same kind as the Taung child. Again the specimen was encased in mineral, in a lime quarry . . . Still later, at the same site,
Broom found postcranial remains (parts of the skeleton below the skull). These left no doubt that Australopithecus africanus was indeed bipedal , and not an ape . At last Dart was vindicated.
The Taung child was not the first fossil evidence of human ancestry . A few famous remains had surfaced in the latter half of the 19 th and the early years of the
20 th century: Neanderthal man in Germany [1856] and France, Cro-Magnon in
France [1868], Java man in the Dutch East Indies [1891]. All were relatively bigbrained, all were well up on the ladder of human evolution, and all belonged to the genus Homo .
But the small-brained Australopithecus was something much more primitive .
The earliest example of primordial, bipedal man yet discovered, it pushed human ancestry far back into the shadowy past . Further, it offered the first evidence in Africa of early hominids . . . Today Africa is recognized as the very cradle of the human race . [578-579]