REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON
IDENTIFYING PARAMETERS FOR
DESIGNATING ECOLOGICALLY
SENSITIVE AREAS IN INDIA
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT & FORESTS
(GOVERNMENT OF INDIA)
NEW DELHI –110 003.
September, 2000
PREFACE
The very act of constitution of this Committee to Identify Parameters for
Designating Ecologically Sensitive Areas in the Country is yet another reflection
of the deep and abiding concern that the Government of India has consistently
expressed regarding the rapid deterioration of the environment, both nationally and
internationally. India has been a pioneer in the area of integrating the needs of
development with the desire to protect the environment. Since the Fourth Five
Year Plan of the country in the early 1970s, sustainable development has been a
key feature of the development strategy of the nation. This was long before the
term, or even the concept, had become popular in international discourse. Indeed,
much of the issues reflected in Agenda 21 of the Rio Declaration find reflection in
several of India’s Five Year Plans. As a consequence of this concern, India has
been an active and enthusiastic supporter of all international efforts at protecting
the environment and encouraging sustainable development. It is a signatory to
every major convention on environmental protection, including, most particularly,
the Convention on Bio-diversity, which has special significance for the work of
this Committee. In pursuance of the goals and objectives that have been laid down
in these international conventions, India has taken upon itself to introduce such
legislation and guidelines as are necessary. This Committee is but one step in this
on-going process.
The Committee is deeply grateful to the Government for having taken this
initiative and entrusted the task to it. It is also acutely conscious of the importance
of the issue that has been placed before it, and the responsibility that it bears. The
Committee has tried its best to fulfill the mandate given within the limitations
imposed by its collective expertise and knowledge. It earnestly hopes that this
Report will meet the expectations that have been placed upon it, and will prove to
be an important step in the preservation and enrichment of our ecological heritage.
The Committee would like to emphasise that once a decision has been taken
at the highest level that areas of ecological sensitivity/fragility are to be accorded
special protection under the Environment (Protection), Act, 1986 and that
parameters to carry out scientific and ecologically justifiable demarcation of such
areas are available, commensurate action to complete the decision must follow as
rapidly and efficiently as possible. The declaration of intent cannot remain at the
status of a declaration alone, but must be in line with the mandate enshrined in
2
Article 48A and 51A(g) of the Constitution. The Committee has in its
recommendations and suggestions enumerated the various steps required to be
undertaken. These steps (together with other measures suggested by the Ministry’s
experts) should be given the status of a National Mission, if only to underscore the
importance of their objectives. There can be no excuse for half–hearted measures,
failure of nerve, or for any dilution of the steps recommended. The ecological
security of this country is paramount and can brook no compromise.
In its task, the Committee has drawn upon the goodwill, expertise and labour
of a number of people and organisations. It is not possible to express our gratitude
to all of them individually. However, there are a few whose contributions have
been so significant that the work of the Committee would have been impossible to
complete without their involvement. The Committee would therefore like to
express its deep gratitude to Dr. T.K. Ghosh of National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Dr. Ramakrishna of Zoological Survey of
India (ZSI), Dr. P.K. Mathur of Wildlife Institute of India (WII), and Mr. Debi
Goenka of Bombay Environmental Action Group. Thanks are also due to Mr.
Manmohan Singh of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, who acted as a oneman secretariat to the Committee and made our task considerably easier and
pleasanter than it otherwise would have been. Last but not the least, the
Committee would again like to reiterate its gratitude to the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government of India, for having given it this
opportunity and for having provided all necessary support and encouragement.
Pronab Sen
Chairman
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CONTENTS
Preface
Chapter
Title
Page No.
1.
Concepts, Approach and Recommendations
5 – 12
2.
Primary Parameters of Ecological Sensitivity
13– 46
3.
Auxiliary Parameters : Indicators of
Ecological Sensitivity
47 – 62
Annexure
1(a) to 1(d)
Constitution of the Committee
2.
List of Experts and Organisations Contacted
by the Committee
3.
List of Indicators and their Components Based
on the Inputs Made Available by the Contacted
Experts and Organisations
Appendix
1.
Areas Representing Wild Relatives of Under
Exploited Cultivated Fruit and Vegetable Plants
2.
Areas Representing Land Races and Primitive
Cultivars
3.
Areas Representing Wild Relatives and Related
Types
CHAPTER 1
4
Concepts, Approach and Recommendations
Introduction
The issue of protection of the environment has numerous dimensions, which makes it
difficult to develop one comprehensive and omnibus law and related guidelines which would
cover all aspects and eventualities. Given the complexity of the issue, it becomes desirable to
approach every one of the major elements of environmental protection separately so that the
essential features of each element are not lost sight of. Ecological sensitivity or fragility is but
one of the elements in the broader area of environmental concern. In its deliberations, the
Committee was quite clear that its mandate was limited to ecological issues, and that the other
dimensions of environmental protection would have to be covered elsewhere and in other
documents.
The Committee was aware of the fact that this was not the first attempt at identifying or
delineating the contours of ecological fragility in the country. Two important efforts had been
made in the past. The first was the Report on “Parameters for Determining Ecological Fragility”
brought out by the Ministry of Environment & Forests in 1990. The second was a report on
“Conserving Ecologically Fragile Ecosystems” prepared by a Task Force set up by the Planning
Commission in 1996. For various reasons, however, the recommendations made in these
Reports could not be effectively implemented. This Committee was therefore fully conscious of
the need to prepare a Report which would be implementable. Nevertheless, the Committee does
not believe that this Report can be viewed as the last word on the subject. To the contrary. Our
knowledge of ecology and of the impact of human activity on ecosystems is still evolving, and it
will be necessary to update this Report from time to time to reflect these advances.
The deliberations of this Committee were consistently informed by the assumption that
the ecologically sensitive areas identified by the parameters evolved by the Committee would
receive protection under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (EPA). This awareness had
two major implications. First, a balance had to be struck between the protection of ecologically
sensitive areas and the needs of national development, particularly in the context of a country
like India with low levels of income and high levels of poverty. Therefore, the parameters had
to be selected and defined in such a manner that they represented only the critical elements of
ecological preservation and did not impinge unduly on the process of development and efforts at
eradication of poverty. Second, it was clearly recognised that in view of the pressing demands
on land and land-use patterns, areas designated as ecologically sensitive would become issues for
litigation. Therefore, the parameters evolved by the committee and the modes of application
would have to be framed in such a manner that they could stand scrutiny in the courts of law.
In view of the above, the starting point for the work of the Committee would clearly have
to be the definition of ecological sensitivity, as distinct from the wider issues of environmental
considerations. This was by no means a trivial exercise. In the minds of laypersons,
5
environment and ecology are almost synonymous terms, to be used interchangeably in popular
discourse. Even the more informed debates on the subject tend to reflect this conceptual
confusion. The Committee, however, was quite clear that the two terms were distinct and not
interchangeable. There are of course major points of overlap, since most forms of ecological
damage arise from environmental factors, but it is conceivable that environmental damage may
take place without significant ecological implications. In view of the reigning state of confusion
on this issue, arriving at a precise definition of ecological sensitivity appeared essential.
Definition of Ecological Sensitivity
At the very outset itself, therefore, the Committee solicited the views of a number of
experts, academics and activists on what exactly in their opinion constituted ecological
sensitivity and how it could be characterised. The list of those who were contacted is given in
Annexure – 2. The responses received, although highly supportive and appreciative of this
initiative, displayed the extent of imprecision that exists even among experts on the distinction
between ecology and environment. Most of the responses received tended to focus more on
specific areas deserving protection rather than on any conceptualisation of the notion of
ecological sensitivity (Annexure–3).
Thus, no clear distinction was drawn between
environmental, heritage, aesthetic and even security considerations, on the one hand, and
ecological factors, on the other. This problem was also evident in the two earlier attempts at
identifying and conserving ecologically fragile areas in the country cited earlier.
Matters were not much better in the international literature on the subject as well.
Bibliographical search, both in libraries and on the Internet, failed to turn up either a precise
definition of ecological sensitivity or fragility, or a clear-cut distinction between ecology and
environment which could act as a basis for arriving at such a definition. Although there is
undoubtedly a vast body of literature, most of it is area-specific and is devoted primarily to
mapping out of areas of ecological and/or environmental fragility. The reasons for according
such recognition are documented in considerable detail in most cases, but the distinction between
ecological and environmental reasons has to be inferred. This has perhaps to do with the fact that
in most countries such a distinction is unnecessary since recognition of the need to preserve and
protect an area is based on environmental considerations, of which ecology is an integral
element. In view of the very precise terms of reference that had been laid down for the
Committee, which enjoins it to focus on ecological considerations only, such ambiguity and
imprecision would have caused serious problems. The Committee therefore decided that, in the
absence of a widely accepted definition of ecological sensitivity, the Committee would itself
have to frame such a definition, at least for application in the Indian context.
The starting point for evolving such a definition would clearly have to be rooted in the
definition of ecology. The standard dictionary definition of ecology is: “The study of organisms
in relation to one another and to their surroundings”. Thus the operative concept which would
need to form the basis of defining ecological fragility is organisms or life forms. The
environment, on the other hand, is defined in a much wider and inclusive sense, as it includes
aspects relating to the activities of human beings as well. The most acceptable definition of
environment is that adopted by the Environment (Protection) Act itself, which reads: “
‘environment’ includes water, air and land and human beings, other living creatures, plants,
6
micro-organisms and property.” Thus “Environment” includes not just nature and life forms, but
also air pollution, heritage sites, hazardous wastes, among others. Seen in this way, ecological
sensitivity becomes inextricably linked to the concept of biological diversity, commonly referred
to as bio-diversity. This linkage also accords well with the rapid and accelerating rate of loss of
bio-diversity that has been experienced in the world in recent years, and which has been a matter
of considerable concern. In formulating the exact definition, however, two important
considerations needed to be borne in mind. The first relates to geographic limitations that may
have to be placed on defining the criticality of potential bio-diversity loss in order to make the
definition compatible with development needs. The second has to do with the inter-temporal
notion of bio-diversity in terms of life forms which may not exist today but may come into
existence in the future. This is essential for reflecting concerns of inter-generational equity and
sustainability. Keeping these considerations in mind, the Committee has defined ecological
sensitivity or fragility as follows:
Ecological sensitivity is defined as the imminent possibility of:
(a) permanent and irreparable loss of extant life forms from the world; or
(b) significant damage to the natural processes of evolution and speciation.
The essence of this definition is that loss of bio-diversity needs to be measured not only
against some measure of the current stock, but also in terms of the potential that must be
preserved for future generations. It also emphasises the view that bio-diversity needs to be seen
in the global context, and national responsibilities should not be unlimited. No single nation can
afford to take on the absolute responsibility for preservation, protection and conservation of all
species that occur within its national territory regardless of their occurrence elsewhere.
Protection and conservation of bio-diversity has to be a task that is shared between all the
countries of the world in an equitable manner, and excessive onus should not be placed on
countries which happen to possess an unusual degree of richness in bio-diversity. Nevertheless,
due to its rich biological heritage, India has a special responsibility to conserve and use these
resources in a sustainable manner, which is recognised.
Operationalisation of this definition, however, requires further consideration. Almost any
human activity causes ecological damage to one extent or another, both in terms of loss of lifeforms and of habitats. An excessively rigid interpretation of the definition may, therefore, lead
to a substantial, and perhaps unacceptable, curtailment in development activities. This is not the
intention. Clearly, the loss of a few individuals of a species or even of an entire species in a
particular location does not necessarily justify the prevention of human activity, and a reasoned
decision has to be taken weighing the benefits of development against the loss of bio-diversity.
However, the loss of a species in its entirety from the world is a different matter altogether.
The prevention of such a possibility is not merely an ethical issue, which places absolute
importance on the right to existence of every form of life, but it has a practical dimension as
well. The importance of genetic resources is only now beginning to be realised to any extent,
and even today our knowledge of the intricate and complex relationship between different forms
of life and their environment is at best rudimentary. Given this inadequacy of knowledge,
conservation of bio-diversity would have to cover not only species which are presently
threatened and protection of eco-systems which have demonstrated qualities of high evolutionary
activity, but also characteristics whose ecological impact can be so widespread that there is no
7
reasonable method of predicting the consequences on present and future progress of biodiversity.
In light of the above, the Committee has identified thirteen principal parameters of
ecological sensitivity falling into three broad categories of ecological significance. The first of
these categories is species related, and defines the characteristics of species which are or may
become threatened with extinction. The second category relates to eco-systems. Some of these
derive their importance from being essential to the survival of the first category, while the rest
are critical for maintaining the range and pace of evolution and speciation. The third category
includes geo-morphological conditions which are known to have substantial effect on ecosystems at large. It should be noted that these parameters relate only to ecological sensitivity and
not to environmental sensitivity, for which a broader set of criteria may need to be developed.
The list of these primary parameters or criteria is given below :
Primary Criteria
Species based
1.
2.
3.
4.
Endemism
Rarity
Endangered species
Centres of evolution of domesticated species
Ecosystem based
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Wildlife Corridors
Specialised ecosystems
Special breeding site/area
Areas with intrinsically low resilience
Sacred groves
Frontier Forests
Geo-morphological features based
11. Uninhabited Islands in the sea
12. Steep Slopes
13. Origins of Rivers
In the opinion of the Committee, areas which meet even one of the above primary criteria
deserve to be protected without any additional factor or consideration being brought in. The
definition and significance of these primary criteria are detailed in Chapter 2 of this Report.
In addition to these primary criteria, the Committee has also identified seven auxiliary
criteria, which though less compelling than the primary criteria, nevertheless require
consideration in view of our insufficient state of knowledge and ecological understanding. Areas
which are characterised by these auxiliary criteria need further investigation in order to establish
8
the degree of ecological sensitivity that may be present. The principal objective of identifying
these is to draw attention to characteristics which indicate the potential for ecological sensitivity
without necessarily being definitive in this regard. The need to identify such auxiliary criterion
stems primarily from a recognition of the fact that the prevailing state of information and
analysis on ecological characterisation is too inadequate to fully cover all critical parameters in
the list of primary criteria. It becomes necessary, therefore, to sound a warning before extensive
damage occurs. The definitions and importance of these auxiliary criteria are given in Chapter 3,
and they are listed below :
Auxiliary Criteria
Species based
1. Areas or centres of less known food plants
Ecosystem based
2. Wetlands
3. Grasslands
Geo-morphlogical features based
4.
5.
6.
7.
Upper Catchment areas
Not so Steep Slopes
High Rainfall Areas
Other uninhabited Islands
Issues in Identification and Protection
Although the identification of the characteristics of ecological sensitivity as given by the
primary and auxiliary criteria listed above is an important step forward in protection of biodiversity, the Committee is acutely conscious of the fact that the publication of such a list carries
its own danger. In a context where ecological pressures are constantly increasing due to the
needs of development, the notification of a list of characteristics or criteria can lead to a problem
of moral hazard. Once a potential encroacher or coloniser is aware of the specific feature that
makes a particular area ecologically sensitive, and therefore deserving of protection, it makes
relatively easier for targeted destruction of that particular characteristic prior to the area
receiving protection, thereby pre-empting the possibility of protection. Thus the transparency
that is sought to be achieved through identification of such criteria can become a double-edged
sword.
This possibility places an onus on the Government for moving proactively in identifying
and protecting areas as expeditiously as possible. In order to fulfill this requirement, a number of
9
steps are necessary. First, the Committee recognises that the availability of information and
knowledge limits the ability of the Government to move on a broad front. A certain amount of
prioritisation, therefore, becomes necessary. A convenient starting point would be to consider
such areas which are already known to be either ecologically important or under ecological
stress. Examples of such areas are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
National Parks and Sanctuaries
Tiger Reserves
Protected and Reserve Forests
Biosphere Reserves
National Marine Parks
Coastal Regulation Zone – I (i)
Hill Stations
Although some of the above areas are already under some form of protection, the
Committee was of the view that additional protection under the EPA should nevertheless be
accorded to either the whole or part of the above areas which fulfil the criteria of ecological
sensitivity as defined in this report. Such multiple protection is both feasible under law and
desirable under ecological considerations.
This would still, however, leave vast areas of the country uncovered in so far as
assessment of their ecological sensitivity is concerned. Given the size of the country, it is very
unlikely that at the present rate of progress complete ecological mapping would be feasible
within any reasonable span of time. Reliance would, therefore, have to be placed on research
and investigation that are being carried out by a wide range of people ranging from academics to
environmental activists. In order to utilise such data effectively, it will be necessary for the
Government to evolve a transparent system by which such information either becomes available
or is accessed with relative ease and are evaluated to determine their prioritisation for detailed
investigation of ecological sensitivity. For this purpose, the criteria of ecological sensitivity
must be made widely available and a format devised by which the relevant information can be
passed on to the Government in a systematised manner. Application of information technology
can help this process significantly.
Even with such information, the technical expertise available to the Government at
present for evaluating ecological sensitivity or fragility and demarcating the area concerned is
extremely limited. Although there are a large number of agencies working in various areas of
bio-diversity, ecology, wild life and genetic resources, each has a very specific focus and none at
present are focused on mapping of ecologically sensitive areas. These organisations are also
inadequately networked, thereby reducing their collective impact. It is clear that even the
combined resources of all of these agencies are grossly inadequate given the size of the country
and its extent of bio-diversity. This is a serious lacuna and, unless institutional and systemic
changes are introduced, it will render the task of ecological preservation along scientific lines
practically impossible. The Government will, therefore, need to considerably enhance the
capacity of the system to study and map the ecological regions of the country. Creation of an
entirely new agency for the purpose of ecological mapping is neither necessary nor desirable. It
10
would be preferable to strengthen and reorient the functioning of existing agencies so that such
identification and mapping functions become an integral part of their responsibilities.
In addition to laying down objective and scientific parameters for identifying ecologically
sensitive areas in the country, the terms of reference of the Committee also requires it to “evolve
an appropriate methodology for regulating various activities in such areas”. This is no easy task,
since the nature of protection that may be required will vary not only from parameter to
parameter but quite possibly from one specific constituent of a particular parameter to another.
The Committee debated this issue at length, and unanimously concluded that to lay down a
specific methodology, or even a set of methodolgies, for regulation of activities would be both
impractical and undesirable, particularly at the level of generality that has been used for
identification of the parameters. The nuances of ecological sensitivity are such that excessive
rigidity on this count could defeat the very purpose of this exercise, which seeks to strike a
balance between preservation of our ecological endowments and the needs of development. The
Committee felt that the system presently being followed for notifying environmentally sensitive
areas under the EPA, which involves wide public consultation on the nature and manner of
regulation of economic activities in the identified areas, was appropriate and adequate for the
purpose with only minor modifications. The modifications which would need to be introduced
have to do with the degree of transparency and with the precise characteristics of ecological
sensitivity which require preservation. Mechanical application of existing regulations on use
may not suffice, and consultation with experts on ecology should form an integral part of the
process. The Committee also felt that the weaknesses that exist in the monitoring of permissible
activities need to be corrected expeditiously through widening the ambit of information flows
and sources.
Recommendations and Suggestions
In light of the above, and of the assessment methodologies suggested in Chapters
2 and 3, the Committee recommends the following measures:
1.
In accordance with the mandate enshrined in Articles 48A and 51A(g) of the
Constitution, areas identified as ecologically sensitive/fragile should be accorded special
protection under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
2.
The criteria described in this Report relate only to ecological sensitivity, which is a subset
of the wider environmental concerns. Therefore, protection under the EPA should not be
restricted only to areas satisfying one or more of these criteria, and other environmental
concerns should be appropriately addressed.
3.
This Report, at various places, recommends that the Ministry of Environment and Forests
notify different lists of species which need protection. Although many of them are
included in other existing lists, such recommended lists need to be brought out separately,
notified and kept updated as the level of knowledge and information increases.
11
4.
Along with the notification of species, the areas of occupancy or occurrence also need to
be identified. A methodology, therefore, should be evolved whereby identification of the
areas concerned is taken up immediately on notification of such lists and/or on any
updated list. Active participation of non-governmental and civil society organisations
should be encouraged in these tasks.
5.
Demarcating the areas which need protection is a highly complex and technical job which
requires considerable expertise since it would vary from criterion to criterion. The
Ministry of Environment and Forests should identify institutions which are capable of
undertaking such work, strengthen their capability and grant them due accreditation for
doing so.
6.
The nature and extent of human activity that can be permitted in designated ecologically
sensitive areas will vary from criterion to criterion. These must therefore be worked out
with due regard to the nature of the criterion and its implications.
7.
In order to ensure that deliberate destruction of species or eco-systems does not occur,
once an area has been declared ecologically sensitive, and accordingly notified for
protection, it should be made perfectly clear that the area shall not be denotified even if
the criteria is not satisfied at any time in the future.
8.
There is no comprehensive programme for generating base-line data on different aspects
relating to bio-geographical regions in India. Measures need to be taken to systematically
map and record such information on ecological characteristics.
9.
The expertise available on Conservation Biology, including ecology and wildlife, in the
country is extremely limited, especially in so far as field investigation is concerned.
Measures need to be taken to encourage and expand such capabilities in the country, both
at the institutional and individual levels.
10.
A comprehensive monitoring programme and network must immediately be designed and
operationalised, which would involve not only government agencies but also other
institutions, universities, NGOs, and even individuals, particularly those living in and
around these areas.
11.
In view of the urgency of the situation, the above steps should be carried out in Mission
mode.
CHAPTER 2
Primary Parameters of Ecological Sensitivity
12
The parameters or, more correctly, the criteria outlined in this chapter represent
characteristics which, in the opinion of the Committee, are so compelling in terms of their
ecological significance that they do not require any other justification for protection and
conservation of the areas concerned. The presence of any of them is sufficient. Nevertheless,
the establishment of the applicability of these criteria in a given area and demarcation of the area
which needs protection is no easy matter. In many of the cases, particularly those which are
species-related, the Committee has recommended that a global view be adopted. This not only
requires that the national authorities work in close cooperation with concerned international
agencies in order to identify the species whose protection and preservation is the responsibility of
the country, but also that such decisions can be implemented, enforced and defended in the
courts of law. In other cases, establishment of the applicability of the criterion may not be a
major problem, but the demarcation of the area can. In view of the limited knowledge-base that
exists at present, it is preferable to err on the side of caution and be liberal in the application of
these criteria.
In order to facilitate matters, each parameter has been defined and its ecological
significance explained. Some indication has also been provided of the principles that need to
underlie the demarcation of the area to be protected and the methodology that should be adopted
in operationalising the concepts laid down. The Committee felt that such description is
necessary since the range and manner of protection would have to be specific to each criterion,
and, therefore, the concerned authorities should be provided with as much information as
possible even at the current level of generality. In addition, for each criterion, a set of illustrative
examples has been provided. These serve two important purposes. First, they help in
understanding some of the concepts that may not be entirely clear at the abstract level. Second,
they draw attention to some of the known instances of ecological sensitivity, which facilitates
initiating the process of identification and protection. It should, however, be made amply clear
that these examples are only illustrative and not exhaustive. There is no cause to restrict the
domain of application of each of the criteria only to the examples given.
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2.1 ENDEMISM
DEFINITION
Endemism refers to any species which is exclusively confined to a particular
geographical area and occurs no where else in the world.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Endemic species of plants and animals in a region represent a valuable biological
endowment of the area/country. Loss of an endemic species is irreparable not only to the
country, but to the world as a whole. The concept of endemism is inherently area-specific and it
is determined by the unique ecological characteristics of the area. Hence, no disturbance in the
area of occurrence of the endemic species should be permitted.
National or local endemism refers to those endemic species which, though found only in
a specific area within the country, are found in other countries as well. The possible loss of
national or local endemics is also important even though it is less so than globally endemic
species. Nevertheless, the case of national endemics needs to be evaluated on merit. This is
particularly important in cases where the natural area of occurrence of an endemic species
spreads over to two or more countries.
AREA
The area of occurrence of an endemic species needs to be protected in its entirety. The
precise demarcation of the area may take into account population density of the endemic species,
quality of habitat, level of exploitation and the effect of introduced taxa, pathogens, competitors,
parasites and /or pollutants.
KEY WORDS
Species: A group of inter-breeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated
from any other such group.
Area of Occurrence: A restricted geographical area, which may be either contiguous or
fragmented, where the species is localised.
Quality of Habitat : Degree of biotic interference on a natural area.
Introduced: A species imported into an area from outside its natural range of
distribution.
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ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Both Botanical and Zoological Surveys of India have reported several species which are
endemic to India. Some of the examples are as follows:
(a). Plants: Adhatoda beddomei, a plant species belonging to family Acanthaceae, is of
medicinal value and is confined to Agasthyamalai hills in Kerala. The other plant species of
medicinal value is Aconitum ferox which is endemic to Sikkim Himalayas. Paphiopedilum druryi
of family Orchidaceae is of great ornamental value and is found in Travancore hills of SouthernWestern Ghats.
(b). Animals: Macaca silenus (Nilgiri Langur) of family Cercopitahecidae is an endemic
primate found in dense evergreen and semi-green forests in the Western Ghat regions of
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu.
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
Close coordination between a designated national agency and the concerned international
agency such as International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is
crucial as far as identification of endemic species at the global level is concerned. Based on such
an interactive process, the Ministry of Environment and Forests in consultation with the
Botanical Survey of India (BSI) and the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) will notify a list of
endemic species for India, which would need to be updated from time to time.
In addition to notification of the list of endemic species, the mechanism to demarcate the
area of occurrence/occupancy needs to be strengthened or put in place by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests
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2.2 RARITY
DEFINITION
A species with a small world population that is not at present endangered or vulnerable,
but is at risk.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
The ecological significance of a rare species arises from their small world population
making them highly susceptible to even a small reduction in their number. Rarity is a natural
phenomenon, and not the result of any apparent human action. Rare species may have narrow
ecological amplitude, inherently low reproductive potential or may have become marginalised
due to poor competitive ability. The survival of the species, therefore, depends upon the habitat
remaining undisturbed, since any perturbations in the habitat may lead to the species becoming
endangered.
AREA
The area of occupancy of a rare species needs to be protected in its entirety. The precise
demarcation of the area will be based on the population density of the rare species, quality of
habitat, level of exploitation and the effect of introduced species, pathogens, competitors,
parasites and/or pollutants.
KEY WORDS
Risk:
Probability of extinction in the wild.
Extinction:
A process by which a species ceases to exist in the wild.
Endangered: A species is endangered when it is facing a very high risk of extinction in
the wild in the near future.
Vulnerable:
A species is vulnerable when it is not endangered but is facing very high
risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future.
Biotic:
Biological aspects of an organism’s environment i.e. the influences of the
other organisms.
Ecological Amplitude: Degree of tolerance of a species to habitat variation
Abiotic:
Physical and /or chemical feature of an ecosystem or the environment.
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ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Some of the selected examples are given below:
(a). Plants: Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum, an orchid of highly ornamental and commercial value
and commonly known as Lady’s Slipper, is thinly scattered in Mizo, Naga and Jowai Hills in
North-east India. The other plant species is Clarkella nana of family Rubiaceae which grows on
lithophytic lime stone rocks in Western Himalaya. A beautiful slender herb- Begonia subpeltata
of family Begoniaceae is found in South Deccan Peninsula, Western Ghats.
(b). Animals: Manipur Brow-antlered Deer or Sangai (Cervus eldi eldi) of family Cervidae is
found in open jungle and floating swamps (Phumids) of Keibul Lamjo National Park, Manipur.
Another animal species is Ardea goliath (Giant Heron) which is found in Sunderbans and
Arunachal Pradesh
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
Close coordination between a designated national agency and the concerned international
agency such as International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is
crucial in so far as identification of rare species at the global level is concerned. Based on this
interactive process, the Ministry of Environment and Forests in consultation with the Botanical
Survey of India and the Zoological Survey of India will notify a list of rare species present in
India, which is to be updated from time to time.
In addition to notification of the list of rare species, the mechanism to demarcate the area
of occurrence/occupancy needs to be strengthened or put in place by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests.
17
2.3 ENDANGERED SPECIES
DEFINITION
A species facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
The ecological significance of endangered species is that they are likely to be lost for
ever to the world unless deliberate efforts are made to protect them. A species becomes
endangered inter alia due to its excessive exploitation, habitat destruction or any other kind of
disturbance. Unless these factors are urgently checked or reversed, the endangered species is
destined to become extinct within a relatively short period of time. An endangered species also
provides strong signals of ecological distress, having serious implications for food web,
community stability, and the integrity and viability of the ecosystem as a whole.
AREA
The area containing an endangered species needs to be protected in its entirety. In case of
fragmented areas of occurrence of an endangered species, all fragments having high population
density and habitat integrity should be of prime concern.
KEY WORDS
Near future: when the existing population of the species is projected to reduce by 50 per
cent within three generations of the species at current rate of decline.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Some of the endangered species of both plants and animals are listed below:
(a). Plants: Dendrobium tenuicaule, an epiphytic orchid found in Andamans Islands. Other
arborescent species found in evergreen forests of the Southern-Western Ghats is Meteoromyrtus
wynaadensis of family Myrtaceae. Nogra filicaulis of family Fabaceae grows on laterite soils
under shade in mesophytic mixed deciduous forests of Singbhum and Gidung in Bihar and
Jashpur plateau in Madhya Pradesh.
(b). Animals: Hylobates hoolock (Hoolock Gibbon) of family Hylobatidae is found in evergreen
and semi evergreen moist deciduous forests in Assam and Garo Hills of Meghalaya. The only
species of salamander found in Darjeeling District of West Bengal in India is Tylotriton
verrucosus (Himalayan Newt), belonging to family Salamandridae.
18
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
Close coordination between a designated national agency and the concerned international
agency such as International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is
crucial as far as the identification of endangered species at the global level is concerned. Based
on this interactive process, the Ministry of Environment and Forests in consultation with the
Botanical Survey of India and the Zoological Survey of India will notify a list of endangered
species for India which is to be updated from time to time.
In addition to notification of the list of endangered species, the mechanism to demarcate
the area of occurrence/occupancy needs to be strengthened or put in place by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests.
19
2.4 CENTRES OF EVOLUTION OF
DOMESTICATED SPECIES
DEFINITION
Areas associated with the origin of domesticated species which continue to harbour their
wild relatives and/or progenitors.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Domesticated animal species or traditional cultivars of crops have a range of variability
that is considered less limited than that available to their wild relatives. As domesticated species
such animal breeds and crop varieties have been subjected throughout the centuries to attacks
from pests and other factors. However, because traditional agriculture utilised several ecological
principles like crop rotation and companion planting, several of these problems were effectively
curtailed. In the process, however, yields /productivity had to be maintained at sustainable and
not maximum levels.
The situation has become truly serious with the present day efforts to reach maximum
levels of crop productivity. Modern breeders are daily creating new breeds, cultivars or varieties
by incorporating genetic material from widely differing environments. While this may enhance
productivity, the plants are less adapted to cope with the stress generated by the environments in
which they are sought to be introduced. The incorporation of genes into food crops (to increase
yields) would not produce results unless and until the innovation is widely disseminated and
dispersed. But such a process of widespread dispersal itself generates homogeneity in crop gene
spectrum or, put in other words, is responsible for reduction in the genetic base of the crop
grown over large areas. This enhances stress and susceptibility to pests. Failures of crops are
therefore large scale and some irreversible.
When modern crops fail, the only recourse available to the breeder is to screen traditional
or wild relatives and isolate genetic material from them, which can be reworked into the failing
plant to give it a fresh lease of life. After a few growing seasons, as the insects or other
pathogens mutate, the variety must be replaced with a new variety which is resistant to the newly
evolved pests. Eventually, when this cycle has repeated itself a few times, the only materials left
for the breeder are the modern-bred varieties which have poor evolutionary background. This
process has already happened in a number of European countries, where presently the breeding
programmes and agriculture in general are under serious threat.
Without the continued existence of such wild relatives, modern agriculture would
eventually fail since the successes of modern breeding accrue from breeding within the
laboratory and not from evolutionary history, and therefore must have recourse to a steady
source of wild relatives. It is a well-documented fact that present methods of plant and animal
breeding are actually based on an increase in reliance of genes from wild relatives, to help them
cope with ecological stress manifest through more virulent diseases, resistant insects and
unusual fluctuations in climate. In future, the breeders will go more often to the wild species to
20
prospect for required genes. Paradoxically, due to the demands of development including
irrigation, drainage, highways, industries and housing as well as the intensification of agriculture,
entire populations of wild relatives are being wiped off the face of the earth. Numerous examples
may be given of such losses of genetic resources. This is the reason why areas which harbour the
wild relatives or progenitors of today's extensively cultivated plants and domesticated animals
must be considered ecologically sensitive.
AREA
The scope of this criterion should not be limited to areas containing domesticated crop
plants alone, though it is most critical in that area. Animal breeds and aquatic stock in their wild
state are also important sources providing a wide base of genetic variability which can be used
and exploited for purposes of improvement of domestic livestock or aqua-culture species. Areas
in which such populations are located, therefore, are also to be considered ecologically sensitive.
KEY WORDS
Domesticated species: Refers to those plants and animals originally growing or living in
the wild but populations of which are now successfully cultivated, cultured or bred by
human beings. The process of domestication involves first the identification of such
plants and animals for their desirable characteristics and thereafter their successful
cultivation or raising in controlled or artificial environments. The process of
domestication includes selective breeding of such plants (usually resulting in traditional
cultivars) and animals (indigenous breeds) and the conscious conservation of their
germplasm as opposed to merely collecting them whenever and wherever available from
the wild.
Harbour: Domesticated plant species are extensively and intensively cultivated. This
leads to extermination of the wild progenitors of such plants since the area the latter
occupied has been given over to the domesticated species. Such extermination of wild
relatives may not be completed in all areas. Many areas will maintain either large or
smaller numbers of wild relatives of domesticates. The same would also be true of animal
populations.
Wild: A wild plant or animal is one that reproduces independently of human control.
Such species are not sown or planted or assisted during birth but propagate by
themselves. Their critical habitats, those required for reproduction and nutrition, can
regenerate without human intervention. Plants are not to be considered wild, for example,
if they survive only or largely in cultivated fields and gardens or urban areas.
Wild relatives: Plants and animals that are the progenitors of their cultivated cousins and
which continue to exist and survive in their natural state. (A sub-category would include
domesticated/cultivated plants and animals that have escaped into the wild). As they are
actually relatives, they would belong with domesticates of the species to the primary gene
21
pool and therefore can be crossed with the domesticated cultivars for purpose of transfer
of genetic material.
Progenitors: Every new species differentiates from an existing species. The original
species from which the differentiation occurs (due to genetic mutations) is called the
progenitor. Close relatives of domesticated cultivars are also sometimes given a similar
label even though technically speaking no evolution into a fresh species has taken place.
The transformation of a species from its wild to a domesticated state is not considered as
creation of a new species.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
From the field of rice, we have a very instructive example of the critical importance of
wild relatives of cultivated plants. The first rice varieties bred by the International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI) were called IR8, IR20 and IR24. These were called "miracle rice" because
under favourable conditions they generated impressive yields when compared with traditional
cultivars. As large numbers of farmers switched to the new IRRI rice, thousands of diverse
traditional varieties simply vanished from the face of the earth. Within a couple of years,
however, the new rice were devastated by the brown plant hopper (BPH) and the virus it
transmitted which spread across thousands of acres simply because large numbers of farmers
had planted the same seeds. IRRI desperately began looking for a solution to the problem. The
Institute screened 5000 rice samples and 1000 breeding lines to search for a rice variety that
could stand up to grassy stunt. Eventually they found what they were looking for: a wild rice
called Oryza nivara, collected in Orissa in 1963, which carried a gene resistant to grassy stunt.
The gene was immediately crossed into new varieties, which were then dispersed to replace the
earlier IRRI rice. The gene was also bred into IR-36, which by 1982 covered 11 million hectares
of Asian rice fields. A better illustration will be difficult to find.
Several present day crops have been developed by incorporating within them genetic
materials from their wild relatives and many other illustrations of similar kind are in the
literature. Two such examples are the cases of tasar and sugarcane.
METHODLOGY OF EVALUATION
Vavilov utilised a specific methodology normally called the differential phytogeographic
method for arriving at identification of the centres of origin of cultivated species. Some of the
steps involved the following:
a) Taxonomic classification of the samples collected.
b) Location of the species in the past, when the means of communication
were less developed.
c) Determination of varieties and races within each species.
d) Determination of the areas where the highest concentration of species, races and
varieties can be found. Determination of the areas where similar cultivated or wild
species are found.
22
The Ministry of Environment and Forests in consultation with Indian Council for
Agricultural Research (ICAR), along with all three bureaus namely National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resources (NBPGR), National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) and
National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (NBFGR), will prepare and notify a list of wild
relatives of domesticated crop species, animal breeds and fish stocks on the lines of examples
given in Appendices 1,2 and 3 and will identify areas rich in such wild relatives. Such lists may
be updated from time to time.
23
2.5 WILDLIFE CORRIDORS
DEFINITION
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
A linear two dimensional landscape element that connects two or more patches of
wildlife habitats that have been connected in historical time and is meant to function as a
conduit for designated animal species. Even isolated strips, but usually attached to a
patch of somewhat similar vegetation, could serve as a corridor.
Streams, rivulets, rivers and their flood plains are natural corridors as they facilitate
movement and dispersal of designated aquatic species.
Riparian zones, along with intermittent and permanent streams and rivers, provide
migration routes for certain designated species, such as butterflies, birds, bats, squirrels
and monkeys.
Wetland habitats along the migration route of designated migratory waterfowls that
provide passage for large scale movement and food. Such a series of wetland habitats on
network of staging sites along the migratory highways so as to reach wintering areas is
crucial for the conservation of birds
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Corridors serve several ecological functions :
(a)
(b)
(c)
They provide seasonal migration route between areas where animals physically
cross one area to another.
They facilitate habitat supplementation, complementation and provide opportunities
for the ‘source and sink’ populations through dispersal route from one area to
another. Immature carnivore or any other animal seeking territories would use
corridors for dispersal.
They help in maintaining a network of protected areas or protected landscapes so as
to allow gene flow between sub-populations. Otherwise, small and scattered
protected areas would suffer from ‘island’ syndrome and ultimately fail in
maintaining the ecosystem integrity.
AREA
Identification of the area constituting wildlife corridors is not easy since it not only
varies from species to species, but also between any pair of sub-populations of a given species.
Consideration also has to be given to the nature and purpose of migration, since the
characterstics of the corridors which are critical may vary depending upon the purpose. Detailed
observations over an adequate period of time is, therefore, usually necessary for delineating the
geographical boundaries of such corridors. The problem is further complicated by the fact that
since this parameter is being applied only to “designated” species - i.e. those which are already
known to be suffering from ecological stress – the possibility exists that habitat fragmentation
may already have occurred through excessive human interference in the “historical” corridors.
24
Therefore, observation of existing migration patterns and the corridors involved may not be
sufficient to provide full information on the requisite degree of inter-connectivity of habitats that
is necessary to ensure surival and growth of the species. There may be situations where
“historical” corridors would have to be identified and rehabilitated by deliberate and planned
reduction of existing human activity.
KEY WORDS:
Designated Species: All taxa included in the lists to be notified by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests under Parameters 2.1 to 2.3.
Landscape : A landscape is a broad-scale area composed of patches, comprising of
physical, biological and cultural elements. Landscapes integrate all natural and human
induced patterns and processes.
Riparian Zone : Riparian zone are areas characterized by presence of vegetation that
requires free or unbound water or conditions that are more moist than normal. Riparian
zones are more diverse and productive.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
In terrestrial ecosystems several corridors have been identified. Corridors for individual
species movement viz. Wild buffalo from Sitanadi Wildlife Sanctuary to Udanti Wildlife
Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh; Elephant from Rajaji National Park to Sonanadi Wildlife
Sanctuary to Corbett Tiger Reserve in Uttar Pradesh. Similarly, a corridor to maintain the
movement of tiger exists between Arunachal sub Himalayan forests, Assam and Bhutan to Buxa
Tiger Reserve in West Bengal.
In river ecosystems, the connecting links between two major river systems or smaller
tributaries joining two large rivers are called as corridors. Like terrestrial ecosystems, aquatic
ecosystems, specifically the river ecosystems have been fragmented due to construction of dams
and barrages and associated development activities and have lost their connectivity with smaller
tributaries. Often contiguous river stretches or the tributaries are interrupted by low water level
or deposition of sediments, pollution and intensive fishing activities making them ineffective as
movement corridors. Consequently the migration of fishes e.g. hilsa and mahaseer; movement of
large vertebrates like river dolphin, otter and also turtles has been affected.
In some cases, though connectivity exists between two large river ecosystems, but due to
intensive anthropogenic pressures they have become unsuitable for animal movements. For
example, though the National Chambal Sanctuary is the largest gharial breeding site, the surplus
stock are not being able to re-colonize downstream in the Yamuna river because of insufficient
water flow, intensive fishing activities, and pollution. Therefore, the confluence part of these two
rivers needs to be protected as corridor to facilitate aquatic species movement.
Along the coast, construction of ports and jetties, and aqua-culture activities have
fragmented the mangroves and associated intertidal habitats. For example, along the eastern
25
coast the saltwater crocodile population occurs in patches and there is very little genetic
exchange between these sub populations. Coastal otters are also facing similar problems. Smaller
patches of mangrove between two large patches though may seem insignificant, but in fact have
high conservation value as they act as migratory route for otters and crocodiles and associated
mangrove fauna.
The tiger population of Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam is in genetic contact with that of
Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal. The population in neither area is large enough to maintain
natural heterozygosity, but the total population along the whole corridor route certainly is.
Conservation planning is paying special attention to the maintenance of such corridors and
linkages.
In the context of birds, especially the migratory waterfowls, the corridors can be in the
form of series of wetland habitats along their migration route that provide passage for large scale
movement of birds. Water birds specially ducks, waders, cranes and raptors are the predominant
elements of Eurasian Migration. While migrating, these birds need staging sites to reach their
wintering areas. At the staging sites the bird also get food for their further journey. The
protection of network of staging sites along the migratory highways is crucial for the
conservation of these birds. The wetlands in northern India, besides being wintering area for
many water birds, provide staging site to large number of species during spring as well as
autumn migration.
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
From the conservation standpoint it is important to assess whether a particular corridor
is capable of performing the desired ecological functions. It is also important to study the
structure and ecological status of the recipient habitat patches. Inferior ecological status of
recipient habitat patches may have an adverse effect on the target species as well as on the
corridor. Corridors may act as sinks if patches linked are not ecologically viable. While
evaluating corridor functions it is important that the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, habitats,
species, and natural features of the landscape are taken into account.
26
2.6 SPECIALISED ECOSYSTEMS
DEFINITION
Specialised ecosystems are complex and highly diversified. They exhibit delicate
interdependence between biotic and abiotic variables and are characterised by their biological
productivity, specialised adaptations in the native or inhabiting organisms resulting in unique
biodiversity and giving rise to complex ecological processes.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
A specialised ecosystem possesses a unique combination of ecological features which are
conducive to the emergence and perpetuation of a highly intricate and interdependent assemblage
of biota. These systems are also locations of active and abundant speciation and genetic
diversification.
Specialised ecosystems are characterised by complex and delicate
interdependence between biotic and abiotic variables, and are, therefore, extremely vulnerable to
slightest perturbations. In most cases, the very complexity of these systems makes it difficult to
predict the consequences of any biotic or abiotic changes on the ecosystem as a whole or on any
individual species occurring therein. Consequently, these ecosystems are extremely fragile and
must be accorded protection from any disturbance.
AREA
Specialised ecosystems are usually extremely sensitive to changes in the abiotic
characterstics of the habitat concerned. Since such abiotic characterstics can be seriously
affected by perturbations taking place even beyond the immediate vicinity, the area of protection
will need to be defined with respect to the critical abiotic characterstics of each identified
ecosystem and the manner in which they can possibly be disturbed. Restrictions in activity may,
therefore, have to be placed on locations which are relatively distant from the actual location of
the ecosystems which would depend upon factors like water currents, wind directions, and other
geo-morphological features which may affect soil or chemical characterstics of the habitat.
KEY WORDS
Complex:
A wide range of ecological functions which are mutually inter-dependent.
Diversified: A wide range of species performing a given ecological function.
Ecosystem: An unit of nature comprising of both biotic and abiotic components which
are interacting and interdependent.
Biological productivity: Rate of evolutionary and speciation activity.
27
Adaptive diversity: Evolutionary diversification of species derived from a common
ancestor into a variety of ecological roles.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
(A) Coral reefs :
Corals constitute a complex ecosystem situated in clear shallow warm marine waters with
a sandy or rocky substratum. The main component of this system is a colony of small animals
known as Cnidarians. A Cnidarian has a central cavity and a terminal mouth surrounded by
tentacles. This animalcule is known as a polyp. The polyps ingest the calcium in the sea water
and excrete it to form a porous exoskeleton of different shapes. The polyps are associated with
endogenous algae especially Dinoflagellates known as Zooxanthellae. Zooplankton present in
the water are ingested by the polyps. The polyps by their respiration supply carbon dioxide to
the algae. The algae in turn supply the products of photosynthetic processes to the polyps. Such
symbiosis results in one of the most productive marine systems.
Various types of fin fishes, turtles, rays and octopuses live among the corals and make
the coral system rich in biodiversity. A single reef may harbour as many as 3000 species – 200
species of corals, 520 species of fishes, 400 species of molluscs, 500 species of crustaceans, 200
species of star fishes and many other species of microscopic and macroscopic organisms.
Coral reefs occur in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep, the Gulf of
Mannar and the Gulf of Kachchh. Optimal development takes place in water temperatures
between 23 to 30 degrees C.
(B) Mangroves :
Mangroves constitute a community of plants and animals adapted to slushy soil, tropical
marine waters and the push and pull of the tides. Vivipary is a strategy by which young
seedlings remain attached to the parent plant until they are old enough to live independently.
They have osmo-regulatory features to handle salinity. The roots have filters that keep out salt.
Glands excrete the excess salt that may have entered the plant body. There are also special
tissues to store excess salt that may hinder the plant metabolism. Prop roots firmly anchor the
plants in the tidal waters. The scarcity of soil atmosphere is overcome by breathing roots that
turn upwards to inhale atmospheric air through openings called lenticels.
The leaf litter of the mangrove vegetation, decomposed by bacteria and fungi, is an
important source of food for the molluscs, crustaceans and juvenile fish. Several marine fish
migrate to the mangroves to spawn. The fingerlings feed on the organic debris. Some of them
become the food of the larger fishes while those that survive migrate to the open sea. Thus, a
mangrove food chain is set up. Salt-water crocodiles, monitors and several birds are part of the
mangrove community. The Bengal Tiger is an important animal in the Sunderbans mangrove
ecosystem.
28
Extensive mangroves are found in the deltas of the east coast rivers, the Sunderbans area,
the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and Cauvery. The Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, the Gulf of Kachchh and the Gulf of Mannar are also noted for their mangroves.
(C) Estuaries:
Estuaries are semi-closed water bodies connected to the sea, within which sea water is
measurably diluted by freshwater. Interaction of two chemically and physically different water
masses gives rise to complex sedimentological process , morphological response, biological
process and chemical characterstics. Estuaries, unlike river mouths, tend to be tide-dominated.
Estuarine sediments can come from range of sources including damage basin, continental shelf
and coastal waters, atmosphere, erosion of estuarine margin, bottom sediments and biological
activity. Based on the degree of separation of mixing of the fresh and salt water masses, three
identified different mixing regimes are : (i) stratified (ii) partially mixed and (iii) mixed or
homogeneous. The shores of a coastal-plain estuary are mainly made of mixtures of silt, mud and
sand in varying proportions and degrees of compaction. Near the mouth of the estuary where
depositional processes occur, the shores and substrate are conspicuously sandy. The muds of the
estuary bottom tend to hold the more saline waters as the tides ebb.
Two types of estuaries are recognised. The first, ‘a positive estuary’, is the one in which
the influx of fresh water is sufficient to undergo mixing and there occurs a pattern of increasing
salinity usually within the mixohaline range towards the mouth of the estuary. This type of
estuary has low oxygen concentration in the deeper waters and considerable organic material in
the bottom sediments. Most of the estuaries are exemplified as ‘positive estuaries’, as they
receive fresh water discharge during the four South-West monsoon months of July to October.
The flood tides are completely nullified by the freshets and there is a strong predominance of ebb
tides.
The second major category of estuary is the ‘negative estuary’. In arid regions, where the
rate of evaporation in estuaries exceeds the inflow of fresh water, salinity increases in the upper
part of the basin, especially if the mouth of the estuary is restricted by shoreline features that
check the tidal flow. Bottom mud is generally poor in organic content. In the case of this kind of
estuary, owing to the banking of fresh water in the rivers during the monsoon, the strength of the
flood tide over the ebb tide is minimum and the estuaries become more or less ‘gradient
dominated’, exhibiting high fluctuations in salinities over their predominant stretches during the
post-monsoon months of November to February.
In the remaining four summer months (viz. March to June), due to cessation of practically all
fresh water discharge, the effects of flood tide are considerably accentuated resulting in the
system becoming more or less marine dominated. A probable exception to this general trend is
the Cauvery estuary, which, in addition to the South-West monsoon, is subject to minor freshets
during the North-East monsoon as well. Similarly, a decreasing trend from North to South is
observed in the tidal amplitudes which are of a higher magnitude in the northern-most estuary,
the Hooghly, but comparatively much poor in the southern-most estuary, the Cauvery.
29
(D) Fresh Water Swamps:
Fresh water swamps are slow moving streams, rivers or isolated depressions, which are
dominated by herbaceous vegetation. They are also extremely rich in their faunal diversity,
including migratory waterfowl. In addition to their richness in terms of specialised flora and
fauna, they also regulate hydrological cycle through recharging of the ground water and
seasonally controlling the release of excess water. Some of the main examples are as follows :(i)
Myristica swamp forests :
These are distributed only in Travancore (Kerala) along streams (below 300 M altitude)
on sandy alluvium rich in humus and inundated during the latter half of the year. The dominant
tree is Myristica sp.
(ii)
Tropical hill valley swamp forests :
They cover along streams on gravelly and sandy beds in submontane tracts of the
Himalayas (in states of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam) and at few places in the Western
Ghats in particular Wynaad forest division in Nilgiris (Kerala).
(iii)
Creeper swamp forests :
These forests are found in Brahmaputra valley in low lying areas on heavy soils. The
forests are dense, up to 10 M high, and have many vines. Important tree species are: Magnolia
griffithii, Machilus sps., Vatica sps. and Eugenia formosa. Creepers and vines include Calamus
leptospadix, and species of Cissus and Uraria. Among other aquatic plants, Phragmites karka is
very common. .
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
For the purpose of identifying and notifying Specialised Habitats, the Ministry of
Environment and Forests should set up a Standing Committee in respect of this parameter on the
lines of the already existing National Committee on Mangroves. Possibly the terms of reference
of the existing National Committee may be expanded to also consider other specialised habitats
which are ecologically quite sensitive.
30
2.7 SPECIAL BREEDING SITES/AREAS
DEFINITION
An area associated with any stage of the reproductive behaviour of a designated species.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
A number of species exhibit the behavioural characteristic of migrating to specific
locations for the purposes of breeding and/or rearing of the young. These locations usually
cannot be termed as the principal habitat of the adults of the species, which would otherwise
perhaps be covered by Parameters 2.1 to 2.3, since they normally do not spend the major portion
of their life-cycles in these locations. Nevertheless, these breeding sites/areas are critical for the
survival of such species in being able to carry out their normal reproductive patterns of breeding
or rearing. Special breeding sites possess specific ecological features which meet any or all of
the following essential reproductive requirements:
(a)
Attract adults for courtship and mating. This is important not only for successful
reproduction , but also to ensure healthy population.
(b)
Conditions suitable for nesting, egg laying, incubation, gestation, hatching and/or
giving birth.
(c)
Adequate protection to the young from natural predators.
(d)
Essential environmental and nutritional requirements for the young to survive and
thrive.
Since the migratory behavioural pattern in itself indicates that the natural habitats of the
adults of the species are not conducive to breeding and/or rearing functions, special breeding
sites acquire considerable significance for the very survival of the species. This is particularly
true if the special breeding site of a specific species is either unique or limited to just a few
locations. These locations indicate a unique assemblage of ecological features which may be
irreplaceable. Thus, any perturbation in the dynamics of these locations and any consequent
alteration effected in the breeding system and/or its spatial distribution, may lead to the species
being unable to reproduce and therefore becoming extinct. The potential of such elimination of
species imparts a great deal of ecological significance for conserving these areas.
AREA
Sites associated with the reproductive, breeding or nurturing behaviour of designated
species and their associated ecosystems.
31
KEY WORDS
Designated species: All taxa included in the lists to be notified by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests under Parameters 2.1 to 2.3. In addition, any taxon whose
special breeding sites are to be found only or primarily within the national territorial
limits. These may be termed as “reproductive endemics”.
Reproductive Behaviour : Courtship, mating, nest building and nesting, egg laying,
incubation, gestation, hatching or giving birth to young ones, and nurturing, including
feeding and upbringing of the young.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES






The Sandy beaches of Bhitarikanika Sanctuary, Rushikulya and at the mouth of river
Devi along the coast of Orissa together with the associated supporting ecosystems
comprising mangroves, estuary and adjoining deep sea area constitute the mass
nesting site of the Olive Ridley turtle.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of Kerala coast for Olive Ridley Turtles.
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur for Siberian Cranes.
Sunderbans Mangroves area for Fiddler Crabs.
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary for Indian Rhinoceros.
All breeding sites of Gangetic Dolphin.
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
The Ministry of Environment and Forests in consultation with the Zoological Survey of
India will notify a list of species whose breeding sites are special to India.
In addition to notification of the lists of designated species, a mechanism to demarcate
the area of breeding and associated ecosystems needs to be strengthened or put in place by the
Ministry of Environment and Forests. Known sites traditionally associated with currently
designated species should receive immediate priority.
32
2.8 AREAS WITH INTRINSICALLY LOW
RESILIENCE
DEFINITION
Ecosystems which are susceptible to irreparable damage from an even low level of
disturbance.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
In nature every individual organism is endowed with an in-built resilience, though of
varying degrees, the same can be applied to ecosystems too. An ecosystem with intrinsically
low resilience means an ecosystem in which the constituent inhabitants (Plants and Animals)
have a low potential of recovery from an adverse impact due to limited extraneous environmental
perturbations or pulse events. This indicates that any human interference may lead to an
imbalance in the entire ecosystem, loss of biodiversity and even extinction of certain species.
AREA
The extent of occurrence of such ecosystems, including sufficient areas for their
protection and potential expansion depending upon the abiotic characterstics of the ecosystems.
KEY WORD
Ecosystem: A dynamic complex of plant, animal, fungal, and microorganism
communities and their associated non-living environment interacting as an ecological
unit.
Resilience: The capacity of an ecosystem to return towards normalcy.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Many ecosystems such as Evergreen Forests of the northern Western Ghats, ‘Shola’
Forests in the Nilgiri and Palni Hills of the southern Western Ghats, certain Wetlands, and
Coral Reefs have low resilience .
‘Shola’ Forests of the southern Western Ghats: These are compact, closed canopy,
evergreen forests occurring as isolated patches at more than 1400. Altitude in depressions of
grassy hillsides and are associated with swift flowing mountain streams. The canopy of these
forests reduces the force of the rain drops, prevents excessive run-off and protects the soil from
erosion. These forests are known for their antiquity. The trees are stunted and uncommon. The
trunks and branches are loaded with a wide range of lichens, mosses, ferns, lycopods and other
33
epiphytes. The soil fauna is unique and closely dependent on the leaf litter. If tempered with, the
shola forests are liable to disintegrate.
Evergreen Forests of the northern Western Ghats: These are ancient forests that have
evolved into climax closed canopy evergreens despite the fact that the wet period is between
three to four months and the dry season lasts for more than eight months. The closed canopy
formed by the branches of contiguous trees creates a humid micro-climate within the forest.
Once the canopy is opened, the shade loving plants (Sciophytes) are eliminated and replaced by
plants that can tolerate higher light intensities. This is in sharp contrast to the wet evergreens of
the southern Western Ghats, which have more than eight months and only four dry months. The
short duration of the wet period in the north is largely responsible for the intrinsically low
resilience of the northern evergreens in the Western Ghats
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
There is at present no standard methodology which can establish low resilience on an
a- priori basis. An ecosystem with low resilience can, therefore, be recognised/ identified only
on the basis of past experience and information described in ecological literature. The examples
cited above demonstrate that these specific ecosystems have been shown to have low resilience
and are not able to regenerate. Since identification can be based only on information received
about ecological damage from diverse sources, the Ministry of Environment and Forests needs to
establish a system by which such information can be brought to its notice in a systematic
manner, investigated and verified, and due recognition is awarded prior to damage becoming
extensive.
34
2.9 SACRED GROVES
DEFINITION
Forest areas or patches of natural vegetation preserved over generations on religious
grounds.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Certain areas in the vicinity of human habitation were declared home of the reigning
deity and no human interference was allowed in order to maintain its sanctity. Vegetation in such
sacred groves is believed to be under the protection of the reigning deity of that grove and
removal of even the dead plants/animals or their parts is taboo. In the case of the North-east
region, entire hills have been maintained as sacred groves. Selected species of religious
significance were sometimes brought from their original habitats and were maintained in the area
of the deity. Due to the protection afforded, over time these became naturalized and have given
rise to considerable biological diversity. These groves have also acted as sanctuaries for a
variety of fauna, thereby creating a rich ecosystem.
These sacred groves, which have served as sanctuaries supporting communities of plants
and animals over many generations, are now coming under threat. In recent times, with
changing values, the extent of religious protection of these groves has weakened. Hence, it is
necessary to bring them under an appropriate legal protection regime in order to preserve their
rich biodiversity.
AREA
The entire area that is demarcated by tradition as being part of a “sacred grove”.
KEY WORDS
Vegetation: Recognisable unique assemblage of plant species which reflect specific
habitat conditions.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
These groves are recognised by several names in India such as kavu, nagakavu,
sarpakkavu in Kerala, deorais or deoban in Mahrashtra, orans or kenkri in Rajasthan, dovarakadu
or sindhara vans in Karnataka, sarana in Bihar and law in Meghalaya. Some examples include :
(a) The Entire Hill:
-Law-Lyngdoh Maphlong, Mausmai
-Kabi, Churten, Khechepheri Mt. Mainam, Rabong, Tendong
-Prathamdev (Bahiradev) Rudranath
35
Meghalaya
Sikkim
Uttar Pradesh
(b) Areas not demarcated with natural boundaries
-Ambiste Bu, Shelte, Dehan, Adi, Kole, Talwade, Warvard,
Parle, Kansad-gaon
-Thimmappa Konda, Pennhobiam, Katam, Thimmamma
marry Manu, Aluru Kona (Ananthapur Dist), Talakona,
Kalyani dam, Papavinasanam (Chitoor Dist) etc.
Maharashtra
Andhra
Pradesh
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
Although, a large body of knowledge already exists in the literature, which has been
further updated from time to time by several recent studies, there has been no formal recognition
granted to these sacred groves on the part of Government of India from the point of view of their
conservation values.
In view of the above, the Ministry of the Environment and Forests should set up a
Standing Committee in respect of this parameter on the lines of the already existing National
Committees on Wetlands and Mangroves for identifying these areas and updating information
about them from time to time.
Botanical Survey of India and Zoological Survey of India will need to provide guidelines
for identification, mapping and demarcation of these groves.
36
2.10 FRONTIER FORESTS
DEFINITION
Remnants of primeval natural forests that have remained on the whole relatively
undisturbed and big enough to maintain their biological diversity including viable populations of
species associated with the specific forest-type.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
As these forests are the only remnants of the natural forest ecosystems, they provide
conditions for undisturbed organic evolution and speciation. Such forests are irreplaceable, since
they represent evolutionary processes spanning millennia. They serve as important bench-marks
for assessing the extent of ecological changes that have taken place or which are in the process
of taking place. These forests have become very rare and any further loss will endanger their
unique ecological and evolutionary processes.
AREA
The extent of occurrence of such natural forest ecosystems, including sufficient areas for
their protection and potential expansion.
KEY WORD
Forest-type: A class/category of forest constituted with respect to its
geographical location, prevailing climatic conditions, soil character, composition
and condition.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
-
Tropical Evergreen Forests in Piyun Valley, Diyun Valley and Patkai Mountain area
in Tirap and Lohit Districts of Arunachal Pradesh
Wet Evergreen Forests in the identified Core areas of Great Nicobar Biosphere
Reserves
Evergreen Forests in Agasthyamalai Hills of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserves
Evergreen Forests in Nallamalai Hills of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserves
Mangrove Forests in the Core area of Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
The Ministry of Environment and Forests should set up a Standing Committee in respect
of this parameter on the lines of the already existing National Committees on Wetlands and
Mangroves for identifying such areas and updating them from time to time. The Committee
suggested for Sacred Groves (Parameter 2.9) could also perform this function.
37
2.11 UNINHABITED ISLANDS IN THE SEA
DEFINITION
Islands in the sea and those falling in Coastal Regulation Zone-I which do not have
permanent human settlement.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Uninhabited islands have evolved, as a rule, their own ecosystems, which are at times
unique, in the absence of human interference. Because of their isolation, the biota of such
islands are good repository of undisturbed evolution and this is manifest in abnormally high
percentage of endemic taxa. The biological component present on these islands is highly
susceptible to the introduction of exotic species. These islands have not been studied and
documented in terms of their biological wealth and other ecological features.
Some uninhabited islands are visited temporarily to collect natural produce. Since they
are temporarily visited, human interference may not have a lasting effect on the island
ecosystem, and may in some cases be supportive of it. Such islands should also be treated as
uninhabited, without necessarily placing restrictions on the customary practices. The biological
significance of uninhabited islands may not be present in the case of rocky or barren islands,
which may be excluded from this definition.
AREA
The natural land-mass of the island at the point of its maximum exposure (low-tide),
along with a sufficient buffer-zone to ensure integrity of the surrounding water.
KEY WORD
Islands : a landmass separated from the mainland by water
Permanent Human Settlement: Where a community spends most of its life.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
(a) Permanent Uninhabited Islands
-Most Islands of the group of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
-A number of islands in Lakshadweep.
38
(b) Islands With Some Human Interference
-Pirotan Island in Gulf of Kachchh.
-Krusadi Island in the Gulf of Mannar.
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
Assessment of ecological aspects can be carried using remote sensing techniques and
ground surveys.
39
2.12 STEEP SLOPES
DEFINITION
A natural slope of 20 degrees or greater.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Slopes are integral parts of any mountainous or hilly terrain, which has evolved
through various geological processes. The ecology of different mountainous zones is
complicated in view of diversity of physical conditions. Increase in altitude results in the
decrease in temperature, rainfall, development of drainage and the rates of stream dissection.
Major biotic communities generally appear as irregular bands, often with very narrow eco-tones.
On a given mountain, as many as four or five major biomes with many zonal sub-divisions may
be present. Consequently there is closer contact between biomes, and more interchange of biota
between different biomes than occurs in non-mountainous regions. On the other hand, similar
communities are more isolated in the mountains, since mountain ranges are rarely continuous. As
a result of isolation and topographic differences, many species are unique to the mountain
communities. Growing human activities (faulty land use, deforestation etc.) may increase the
probability of instability of the slopes and irreversible alteration in the habitats and their
interactions resulting in potential loss of species and bio-diversity.
Any zone with a water surplus has a downstream movement, known as draining. Erosion
and transfer of sediment both occur through the action of water moving through the terrestrial
phases of the hydrological cycles, and as a result the drainage catchment of mountainous
ecosystem has been considered a fundamental geo-morphological unit. As drainage basins are
catchment areas for the stream water, any variation in these areas affects the stream
characteristics. Drainage density has a close relation to precipitation, run off and the topography
of the drainage catchment. Vegetation and rainfall tend to be closely related, so that the area of
high rainfall are often characterized by a dense vegetation cover, as the vegetation enhances the
infiltration and reduces run off. The detrimental ecological effects in the form of flood hazards,
damage in river region, poor water quality and reduced availability of ground water are similar
to those mentioned in Origin of Rivers (Parameter 2.13).
Although it is recognised that the fragility of a specific mountainous ecosystem is
dependent on interaction of geological, seismological and biological characterstics, the
ecological impact of perturbations in steeply sloped areas can be so wide spread that mere
consideration of the immediate area would be fallacious. Therefore, it is felt that steepness of the
slope is sufficient justification without any further qualification.
40
AREA
The slope of a land area is generally defined as its upward or downward inclination to
horizontal plane and it is usually measured as an angle in relation to the horizontal plane.
In the Indian context, the gradient nomenclature, which is usually used in engineering
designs and the image processing techniques (GIS), classify slopes as given in the table below:
Gradient Nomenclature
Slope
2o
4o
8o
14o
26o
45o
Per cent
0-3
3-8
8-15
15-25
25-50
50-100
100
Description
Flat
Gently sloping
Sloping
Moderately Steep
Steep
Very Steep
Extremely Steep
It may be seen that the 20o cut off recommended by the Committee represents the upper
half of the “Steep” classification and higher gradients. Since a mountain or a hill slope may
contain segments having different degrees of inclination, the criterion should be applied to the
totality of the slope from the base to the apex. Also, since the angle of a slope is related to the
distance from which it is measured, measurements need to be taken from different points along
the slope and, if at any point the angle exceeds 20o, the area above that point should be treated as
a steep slope. The relevant area for protection would need to take into account of certain
destructive features which are commonly present including various combinations of steep slopes,
seismicity, residual soil, high pore water pressure, thick & deeply weathered soil cover,
undercutting of the base of the slope, and weak material outcropping below stronger material.
Since the horizontal planes near the top and base of a slope are prone to landslides and receive
boulders /debris of a slide respectively, suitable buffer zones are designated. In general, a
minimum horizontal distance of 500m at both the ends of a slope is recommended as buffer
zones. These issues are illustrated in Figure 1. In mountainous ecosystems, buffer zones may
need to be extended further in landslide-prone slopes.
KEY WORDS
Steep
Upward
Downward
Angle
Buffer zone
: sloping sharply, not gradually
: towards higher place
: towards lower place
: the space between two surfaces that meet
: the area which absorbs the shock of an impact
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
41
Fragility of a mountainous ecosystem is dependent on interaction of geology, drainage,
soil and degree of slope with natural processes and man's developmental & economic activities.
An example from the Indian sub-continent is cited hereunder:
Kashmir Himalayas: The slope and land use pattern of 2 tahsils, viz. Gulmarg and Pahalgam of
Kashmir Himalayas are presented in following Table :
Table: Suitability for Development in Gulmarg and Pahalgam Tahsils of Kashmir
Himalayas on the Basis of Geomorphic Items and Ecological Fragility*
Feature
Suitable
Moderately
sustainable
Suitability Groups
Unsustainable
Unsuitable
Geomorphology
Slope (Degree)
3-11
11-17
17-22
>22
149.25
180.42
199.72
72.6
Topography
Flood Plain
Dry Farm-Land
Alpine
Rocky Slopes
Zone
Paddy Belt
Forested Slopes
Pastures
Glacial Heights
Older Alluvium,
Karewa
Shale, limestone,
Clay
Quartzite, StandStone
Metamorphosed
Rocks
1500-2000
2000-2500
2500-3000
> 3500
Poor
Moderately Good
Good
Very good
Soil erosion
Practically
Negligible
Moderate to Heavy
Severe
Bed-rock Exposed
% of top soil
25
25-75
>50
Nil
Settlement
Good
Not
Recommendable
Dangerous
Impossible
Construction
Good
Not Suitable
Dangerous
Impossible
Preservation
Poor
Moderate
Good
Very good
Productions
Good
Moderate
Not Feasible
Impossible
Area under each slope
type (km2)
Geological formation
Altitude (m)
Natural drainage
Use type
*Source: Singh, R.B.& A.A. Pirazizy (1990). Anthropogenic impact on landscape synthesis in Kashmir Himalayas: a study of land suitability
and capability classification. In R.B. Singh (ed.). Contribution in Indian Geography XI: Environmental Geography. Heritage Publishers, New
Delhi
42
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
Assessment of steepness of the slopes may be carried out by Remote sensing and ground
surveys. However, care should be taken that the measurement of the slope is done by selection
of appropriate points as illustrated in Figure 1, and as discussed in the definition of Area as given
above.
43
44
2.13 ORIGINS OF RIVERS
DEFINITION
A glacier, mountain, hill or spring from where a water stream originates is referred to as
the origin of a river.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Rivers have been an integral part of the human society and always held in reverence since
the dawn of civilization for good reason. Because of importance of water to virtually all life
forms, a river plays a critical role in all ecosystems which may be in existence along its entire
length. Disruption of a riverine system can have ecological consequences which may be so vast
that they can not be predicted on an a-priori basis. Like most water bodies on the earth's surface,
a river is also a medium of support of various life forms - ranging from bacteria to simple forms
of plants, and animal life including fish, amphibians, birds and mammals.
Relatively minor disturbances near the origin of a river may result in major changes of
the geological and hydrological features of the surrounding areas. This would have major
repercussions on the river itself. In addition, this may cause enhanced erosion rates in the
mountains, fluctuations in the hydrologic regimes in downstream, silt accumulation rates,
flooding water in the low lands and natural system of recharge, all of which can result in serious
ecological damage in surrounding areas.
AREA
The area relevant to the origin of a river is not strictly limited to the natural point of
origin of the river itself (for example, the exact point at which the water spring emerges), but the
entire area necessary for preserving the geological and hydrological features which are critical
for the sustainability of the river sources. Thus, it is not enough to protect only the glaciers or
the snow receiving slopes which feed the river, but also the channels, fissures and other features
which are intrinsic to the process of recharging the water source. Similar considerations would
apply to the recharging of spring and rain-fed rivers.
KEYWORDS
Stream: Water body flowing in the river - beds or brooks
Glacier: A slowly moving mass of ice which is formed in mountainous regions by the
accumulation of snow over thousands of years
Spring: A flow of water from the ground
45
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
(a): Rivers originating from glaciers:
Teesta originates from glaciers at a height of about 6400m and is formed mainly by the
union of two streams Lacheng chu and Lachung chu which unite at Chungthang. Hence the
glaciers which feed both these streams would be considered as the origin of the river.
(b) Rivulets fed by snow covered slopes:
In the upper reaches of the Himalayan region, snow covered slopes during summer start
melting. Consequently, a significant quantity of water is released, through rivulets and small
streams,
into several rivers passing through these ranges. These rivulets are critical for
sustaining the supply of water and hence require efficient protection taking into account their
geological instability
(c) Rain-fed rivers
In the case of rain-fed rivers through underground source, geo-hydrological features which
channelise the rainfall to the underground sources need to be maintained
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
Remote sensing and ground surveys may be used to identify the origins of rivers and the
associated geo-hydrological features which would need to constitute the area requiring
protection.
46
CHAPTER 3
Auxiliary Parameters : Indicators of Ecological Sensitivity
The primary parameters described in Chapter 2 are compelling enough individually to
warrant protection of the concerned area. There are, however, other characteristics about which
too little is known at present to give any definitive judgement. Nevertheless, these
characteristics are strong indicators of the possibility of ecological sensitivity. This chapter
outlines some of these parameters.
It is recognised that many of the areas covered by these auxiliary criteria may also be
falling in one or more of the primary parameters, in which case there is no real issue. However,
areas which are not so covered need to be closely investigated in order to ascertain their
ecological sensitivity. Priority should be given to those areas which satisfy more than one of
these auxiliary parameters, since the a-priori case strengthens with every additional
characteristic.
As in the case of the Primary Parameters, efforts have been made to provide sufficient
details of definition, ecological significance, area coverage and assessment methodologies, along
with illustrative examples, to facilitate the process of prioritisation and investigation.
47
3.1 CENTRES OF LESS KNOWN FOOD PLANTS
DEFINITION
Areas associated with the origin of or containing the wild progenitors of less known
plants of potential food and horticultural values.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
In view of the concern of food and nutritional security, these plants represent valuable
resources as non-conventional alternative or additional food sources. Such wild food plants
posses rich and wide range of genetic resources which are of immense value for human use.
Many of them are currently used by some communities, but have yet to attain wider popularity.
At some future date, these may become more widely used.
AREA
The entire area of occurrence of a viable population of such plant species.
KEY WORD
Less known plants : Those plants having high food and horticultural potential which have
remained under-recognised and unexploited.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Some lesser known food plants examples in Hindustani regions are as follows :Food plants/Regions
Category
Tuber & root type
Nos.
7
Vegetables
11
Flowers
Fruits
3
17
Some examples
Dioscorea spp., Pachyrhizus spp., Tacca spp. and
Xanthosoma spp.
Basella rubra, Pentaphragma bagoniaefolium,
Hydrolea zeylanica, Ipomoea aquatica.
Bauhinia purpurea, Madhuca spp., Musa spp.
Artocarpus lakoocha, Aegle marmelos, Citrus
indica, Elaeocarpus floribundus, Mangifera indica,
48
Seeds/Nuts
11
Miscellaneous
8
Pandanus spurius.
Borassus flebllifer, Coix lacryma-jobi, Digitaria
Cruciata var. esculenta, Dolichos uniflorus, Echinochloa
colonum, Mucuma capitata,
Panicum sumatrense Triticum sphaerococcum,
Vigna aconitifolia
Amomum xanthioides, Caryota urens, Murraya
koenigii, Phoenix sylvestris
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
Based on ethno-botanical data, the methodology for assessing the potential food and
horticultural value be identified. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, in consultation with
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources (NBPGR), will prepare and notify a list of less known food plants on the lines of
examples given above, and will identify areas rich in their wild populations. Such lists may be
updated from time to time.
49
3.2 WETLANDS
DEFINITION
Wetlands are submerged or water saturated lands, both natural and man-made, permanent
or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, salty, including areas of marine
water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
The wetlands maintain conditions vital for ecological processes at landscape level,
integrating both aquatic and terrestrial habitat (ecotone). In addition to providing critical habitat
for threatened and endangered species for breeding, feeding and migration, they support
perpetuation of species of medicinal, agricultural and genetic value. Besides, their role in
regulating hydrological cycles in the area and recharging underground aquifers has also been
well established. They are thus areas of outstanding natural value for hydrological, geological,
scenic and biological resources, that should be carefully managed to maintain these values.
Wetland habitats provide protection to or act as shelters from cyclonic storms, protection
to slopes, especially along riverine habitats. They regulate and purify water flow and support
natural vegetation on hydric-soils that has significant value for migrant and resident wild fauna.
AREA
As identified by the natural boundaries of the water body.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
The Ministry of Environment and Forests has already identified a set of nationally
important wetlands/lakes as part of an on-going exercise to identify and conserve ecologically
sensitive wetland areas. This list is given below :
50
LIST OF NATIONALLY IMPORTANT WETLANDS/LAKES
Sl.No. Name
(A)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
(B)
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
State/U.T.
Wetlands
Wullar
Tso Murari
Tisgul Tso
Renuka
Pong Dam
Chandratal
Harike
Ropar
Kanjli
Chilka
Kabar
Keoladev National Park
Sambhar
Kolleru
Loktak
Ashtamudi
Sasthamkota
Ujni
Nalsarovar
Deepar Beel
Rudrasagar
Lakes
Dal
Sukhna
Sagar
Nainital
Kodai Kanal
Ooty
Pulicut Lake
Rabindra Sarovar
Powai
Pichola Complex
Hussain Sagar
Jammu & Kashmir
-do-doHimachal Pradesh
-do-doPunjab
Punjab
Punjab
Orissa
Bihar
Rajasthan
Rajasthan
Andhra Pradesh
Manipur
Kerala
Kerala
Maharashtra
Gujarat
Assam
Tripura
Jammu & Kashmir
Chandigarh
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar pradesh
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu
West Bengal
Maharashtra
Rajasthan
Andhra Pradesh
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
The Ministry of Environment and Forests is engaged in identifying nationally important
wetlands in the country through a Standing Committee on Wetands. This committee also
facilitates implementation of appropriate conservation and management plans, including required
research and development activities. This procedure may be continued and the list updated by the
Ministry from time to time.
51
3.3 GRASSLANDS
DEFINITION
Grasslands are terrestrial ecosystems characterised by plant communities belonging to the
grass family - ‘gaminoids’ and ‘forbs’.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Population of native animals in grasslands are much more diverse than is usually
appreciated and is ecologically very important in the entire food chain.. Besides representing
rich avi-fauna, these are also home to a number of animals, such as ungulates, carnivores,
rodents, lizards and snakes and the larger insects, particularly grasshoppers, beetles and
butterflies. A large proportion of them exhibit burrowing habits. Often intervening grassland
patches serve as crucial corridor for movement and dispersal of native animals.
As such all grasslands types have evolved along human presence and different type of
uses. All grasslands to a great extent are resilient to any type of disturbance whether maninduced or natural. However, the lack of ecological understanding, general neglect in their
conservation and management, and burgeoning grazing pressure have taken major toll of natural
grasslands – their diversity and values in terms of life support system. Common factors
responsible for degradation of various types of grasslands are : ‘free’ grazing during the short
period of active growth of plants, fire, excessive grazing, collection of shrubs/stunted trees for
fuel wood in savannah condition. Any type of disturbance in the catchments of undulating
grasslands causes irreparable loss of diversity and other values.
AREA
Areas containing small, isolated or remnant patches of any type of natural grassland
supporting livestock, native wild animals and avi-fauna.
Grasslands may be classified as temperate or tropical grasslands. Within the temperate
zone, the natural grasslands are distinguished from semi-natural types. The semi-natural types
have been divided further into those used primarily for hay and those that are grazed by
domesticated livestock. Likewise, scattered and small tropical natural grasslands are found in
arid and semi-arid areas, where climate is the prime controlling factor, under light to moderate
grazing pressure by ungulates. In general, majority of the natural grasslands (arid, semi-arid, wet
and tall and temperate) have been severely impaired. Now only small, isolated fragments or
remnant patches of grassland habitats are seen. However, even in this category, several sites
have undergone considerable modification because of excessive livestock grazing.
52
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Some of important examples of grasslands from the temperate and alpine Himalayas and
sub-tropical regions of the country are given below:
(a) Temperate and alpine grasslands of the Himalayas
-Warm Temperate Grasslands : The warm temperate belt (1500 – 2500m) in the
north west, western and central Himalaya, especially in the south to south-eastern slopes
are characterised by extensive grassy slopes with Themeda – Arundinella grassy type of
cover.. Most of these grasslands or ‘hill savannahs’ are locally known as ‘Ghasnis’ in
Himachal Pradesh (H.P.) and hills of Uttar Pradesh (U.P.)..
-Cool temperate grassy slopes : The common species of grasses in these steeper
(.45%) slopes with thin soil in the cool temperate and sub-alpine zone (2600-3300m) are
Chrysopogon gryllus, Dactylis glomerata, Koeleria cristata, Andropogon munroii,
Danthonia jacquemontii, and Themeda triandra. These areas also get burnt during winter
accidentally or intentionally.
-Sub-alpine meadows and ‘Thaches’ : These are the forest blanks within the cool
temperate and sub-alpine forests, created by the migratory graziers and are frequently
termed as ‘Thaches’ in Himachal Pradesh (H.P.) of India. Unlike category (b) above,
these areas are dominated by a large number of herbaceous plants such as Origanum
vulgare, Taraxacum officinale, Ranunculus hirtellus, Rumex nepalensis, Anemone
rivularis, Senecio chrysanthemoides, and Anaphalis cuneifolia, many of which are
unpalatable and weedy. Only a few grasses (e.g., Poa alpina, Phleum alpinum and Stipa
sp.) are found in these areas.
-Alpine meadows : These are the natural herbaceous formations located above
natural limit of forest and scrub vegetation covering approximately an area of 171646
km2 or 25% of the geographical area in the Indian Himalaya. The meadow vegetation
typically comprises a large number of herbaceous plants with varying proportions of
tussock forming grasses, sedges and matted shrubs.
-Steppe formations of trans-Himalaya : The cold arid regions in the trans-Himalaya
is characterized by the Mediterranean type of vegetation i.e. scattered low shrubs with
sparse grasses and forbs. Several communities are reported from the cold arid regions of
Ladakh and Spiti regions of North West Himalaya viz., Artemisia – Caragana, Ephedra –
Juniperus, Salix – Myricaria, and Lonicera – Rosa.
(b) Grasslands of tropical and sub-tropical regions
-
Arid grasslands in Western Rajasthan, including the Great Indian Desert, and
saline tract of Banni in Western Gujarat-Kachchh.
53
-
-
Extensive grasslands characterised by Sehima, Heteropogon and Dicanthium in
the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Western
Madhya Pradesh.
Once widely distributed wet, tall grasslands in the foothills of Himalaya or ‘Terai’
region, Indo-Gangetic plains and Brahmaputra flood plains.
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
The basic parameters to determine the ecological significance of any grassland are size,
which greatly influences diversity and other values, occurrence of annual and perennial Grasses,
proximity to Perennial Streams/Catchment and grazing regime. These parameters can be
analysed by using of Geological and Natural Resource Maps, including GIS and remote sensing
tools, and ground truth surveys. The detailed ecological studies of such poorly understood
ecosystems would be immense value in developing their conservation strategies.
54
3.4 UPPER CATCHMENT AREAS
DEFINITION
Catchment area, also referred to as drainage area, is a basin like structure for collecting
and draining water. Upper Catchment Area is typically refers to a basin which collects
precipitation, mostly in the mountainous or hilly region or the upper reaches of a river following
its origin. The water collected is absorbed by the soils or drains into the river.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
The catchment of any region acquires importance because it determines the annual wateryield of the river draining it. The health of a catchment area is indicated by the land pattern and
extent of its forest cover. The forests play a valuable role in conserving water. In most of the
rain-fed river basins in India where the catchment area is denuded of forests, floods occur after
the heavy monsoon showers. The river basins then run dry for several months before the onset
of the next monsoon. The opposite is true for rivers where catchment area possesses thick
vegetation. The rivers yield water till the end of summer. The ecological importance of rivers
has already been indicated earlier in Primary Parameter 2.13.
AREA
The designated ‘upper catchment area’ from which water is collected into the upper
stretch of a river varies widely from river to river. It is dependent on various factors viz. location
of origin of the river, slopes of the basin, tributaries, annual discharge, geology, soil
characterstics and forest cover.
KEY WORDS
Drainage
Basin
Precipitation
: A system of channels carrying water
: An area drained by rivers and tributaries
: Water which falls on the ground
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
The Narmada Basin
The catchment area within 1051m (Amarkantak) and 300m MSL (Chinki) is designated
as ‘Upper Catchment Area’. This zone needs special protection so as to reduce soil erosion and
siltation in the long run.
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
Remote sensing and ground surveys may be used to identify the origins of rivers and the
associated geo-hydrological features which would need to constitute the area requiring
protection.
55
3.5 NOT SO STEEP SLOPES
DEFINITION
A slope greater than 10 degree but less than 20 degree.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
The ecological significance of “not so steep” slopes is similar to that given for Primary
Parameter 2.12: Steep Slopes. However, since “not so steep” slopes, by and large, are less
unstable and more hospitable to biotic communities than “steep slopes”, greater consideration
has to be given to other factors for determining the extent of ecological sensitivity/fragility.
Vegetative regeneration capacity, species types and their importance, habitat characteristics,
climate, geology, palaeontological characteristics, seismicity, drainage and rainfall would need to
be considered for designating such slopes as “Ecologically Sensitive”.
AREA
An area which may have its upward or downward inclination to horizontal plane between
10 and less than 20 degrees. Since the horizontal planes near the top and base of a slope are
prone to landslides and receive boulders /debris of a slide respectively, suitable buffer zones are
designated. In general, a minimum horizontal distance of 200m at both the ends of a slope is
recommended as buffer zones.
In mountainous ecosystems, buffer zones need to be extended in landslides prone slopes
which tend to possess certain destructive features, including various combinations of steep
slopes, residual soil, high pore water pressure, thick and deeply weathered soil cover,
undercutting of the base of the slope, and weak material outcropping below stronger material.
Methodology of measurement is the same as in the case of Primary Parameter 2.12.
KEY WORD
Steep
Upward
Downward
Angle
Buffer zone
: sloping sharply not gradually
: towards higher place
: towards lower place
: the space between two surfaces that meet
: the area which absorbs the shock of an impact
56
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Teesta Basin: The tributary streams of the river Teesta have moderately steep (not so
steep) slopes and tiny catchment areas. These streams bring down large quantities of silt,
boulders and water at a very high velocity. They play a major role in causing floods during
rainstorms. Several of them flow into the Teesta in an opposite direction. At their confluence,
there is enormous turbulence and silt deposition. Slopes of select tributaries of the Teesta are
delineated hereunder,
Tributaries of Teesta
Slope(degree)
Geil Khola
Lepcha Jhora
Bhalu Khola
Khani Khola
Tar Khola
Tumthang Khola
Rani Khola
Rora Chu
Takchom Chu
10.54
15.91
17.07
16.17
15.27
13.77
10.26
10.92
10.31
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
Remote sensing and ground survey:.
In making assessment to these two methods of Remote sensing and ground survey, care
should be taken that the measurement of the slope is done by selection of appropriate point as
illustrated in Fig.2.
57
58
3.6 HIGH RAINFALL AREAS
DEFINITION
Areas having precipitation intensity greater than 200 cm per year.
ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
High rainfall areas greatly influence the microclimate of the region making it more
conducive to high bio-diversity (Microbial, Plants and Animals) of the region. High rainfall area
with high vegetation cover reduces the soil erosion to a great extent, and trees can also trap and
re-evaporate significant quantities of moisture to the atmosphere thus maintaining the water
cycle of the region and prevents desertification.
Quite often the regime of high rain fall are associated with slopes. In the absence of
vegetation or deforestation of these slopes/hills leads to heavy soil erosion due to high intensity
rainfall, leading to heavy sedimentation/siltation of the rivers, river-basin causing floods (Figure
2). It also leads to landslides in sensitive regions ( such as steep to moderate slopes, and denuded
hills).
The stability of a slope that is critically disposed is controlled by the amount of water that
infiltrates into it and the state of saturation of the sub soil. As such, normally a landslide is
initiated only after the initial phase of south-west monsoon during a high intensity precipitation.
However, a good pre-monsoon rain may alter the situation by enhancing the saturation level of
sub soil. With the available rainfall data and known landslide events it may be summarized that
consecutive rainfall for two days in excess of 30 cm during a continuous rainy season may affect
stability of critical slope areas.
High rainfall is one of the main triggering mechanism for mass movements and serious
soil erosion. Although practically no significant studies have been made in India
on the relationship between mass movements and precipitation, there can be little doubt that at
least in the Western Ghats many such natural calamities are induced by heavy rain. Prolonged or
intense rainfall, or more particularly a combination of the two are among the most important
triggers of landslides.
AREA
Areas which receive high precipitation on a “normal” basis as identified by the Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD) or from Remote Sensing Data. This would exclude areas
which receive such levels of precipitation only on an episodic basis.
59
KEY WORDS
Precipitation
: Snow, rain or water which falls or precipitate on the
ground
Vegetation cover
: Area of a land covered by plant communities
Groundwater aquifers : Layer of rock or soil which can hold or transmit water under the
ground
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Known areas of high rainfall have been depicted in Figure 3.
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
The principal source of information would be the rainfall data collected by the Indian
Meteorological Department. In the absence of such data for a particular area, remote sensing
data may have to be used.
60
61
3.7. OTHER UNINHABITED ISLANDS
DEFINITION
Islands in coastal, estuarine and inland water bodies which do not have permanent human
settlement.
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
The ecological significance of such uninhabited islands is similar to that of Primary Parameter
2.11 relating to “Uninhabited Islands”. However, since these islands are more exposed to human
activity and to mainland biota, their ecological sensitivity cannot be presumed without further
investigations. Nevertheless, attention needs to be drawn to them since the balance of probability
would favour classifying many of them as ecologically sensitive/fragile.
AREA
The natural land-mass of the island at the point of its maximum exposure (low-tide) along
with a sufficient buffer-zone to ensure integrity of the surrounding water.
KEY WORD
Islands : a landmass separated from the mainland by water
Permanent Human Settlement: Where a community spends most of its life.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
-Nalban island in Chilka lake.
-Riverine islands in Brahmputra river system.
-Some islands in the coastal areas of Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Kachchh.
METHODOLOGY OF EVALUATION
Assessment of ecological aspects can be carried using remote sensing techniques and
ground surveys.
62
ANNEXURE-I(a)
(COPY)
No. Z-12011/3/99/IA-III
Government of India
Ministry of Environment & Forests
Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO Complex,
Lodhi Road, New Delhi – 110 003
Dated:
6-4-1999
OFFICE MEMORANDUM
It is recognized that areas which are ecologically sensitive require special protection and
hence activities to be undertaken in such areas should be regulated. Some areas were identified
in the past for such regulation on an ad hoc basis but it is felt that there is a need to lay down
parameters for designating an area as ecologically sensitive so as to ensure that this process is
objective, scientific and transparent. It has, therefore, been decided to constitute a Committee
comprising the following for studying this issue and making appropriate recommendations to the
Government:
(a) Dr. Pronab Sen, Adviser (Perspective Planning)
Planning Commission, Yojna Bhavan,
New Delhi – 110 001.
(b) Prof. N. Balakrishnan Nair, Hon. Professor,
Deptt. of Aquatic Biology & Fisheries,
“Swathi”, Women”s College Junction,
Residency Road, Thycaud,
Thiruvanthapuram – 695 014 (Kerala)
(c) Prof. C.K. Varshney,
School of Environmental Sciences,
Jawahar Lal Nehru University,
New Delhi – 110 067.
(d) Dr. V. Singh, Additional Director- in-charge,
Botanical Survey of India ,
P-8, Brabourne Road, Calcutta – 700 001.
(e) Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director,
Zoological Survey of India,
“M” Block, New Alipur,
Calcutta – 700 053.
63
Chairman
Member
Member
Member
Member
(f) Prof. S.K. Mukherjee, Director,
Wildlife Institute of India,
Post Box No. 18, Chandravani,
Dehradun – 248 001 (U.P.)
(g) Prof. Satish Chandra
Former Director,
National Institute of Hydrology,
Roorkee (U.P.)
Member
(h) Shri Shyam Chainani,
Bombay Environmental Action Group
9, St. James Court, Marine Drive,
Bombay – 400 020
(i) Shri Claude Alvares
Goa Foundation, Above Mupusa Clinic,
Mupusa, Goa – 403 507
(j) Dr. K.P.S. Chauhan, Additional Director
Ministry of Environment and Forests
Paryavaran Bhavan, New Delhi – 110 003
Member
Member
Member
Member
Secretary
2. The terms of reference of the Committee are to lay down objective and scientific parameters
for identifying ecologically sensitive areas in the country and evolve an appropriate methodology
for regulating various activities in such areas.
3.
The Committee shall submit its report within one month from the date of issue of this
Notification.
4.
The Committee may hold its meeting at Delhi or at any other place in the country as may
be considered necessary.
5.
The TA/DA of the non-official members of the Committee will be regulated as per the
provisions of SR 190.
6.
This issues with the concurrence of Finance Division vide their Diary No558/IFD/99
dated 30.3.1999 and with the approval of the competent authority.
Sd/------(R. Anandkumar)
Director (IA)
Copy to :1. All Members of the Committee
2. PS to MEF
3. PPS to Secretary (E&F)/IGF and SS.
4. Joint Secretaries (MOEF)/Advisers (MOEF)/DS(A)/Director (IFD)
5. Guard File.
64
ANNEXURE-I(b)
(COPY)
No. Z-12011/3/99/IA-III
Government of India
Ministry of Environment & Forests
Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO Complex,
Lodhi Road, New Delhi – 110 003
Dated:
8-4-1999
CORRIGENDUM
In continuation of this Ministry’s O.M. of even number dated 6.4.1999 regarding
constitution of a Committee for laying down parameters for designating an area as ecologically
sensitive, it has been further decided to include Dr. S.N. Kaul, Acting Director, NEERI, Nagpur
as a Member of this Committee.
2.
This issues with the approval of the competent authority.
Sd/---------(R. Anandkumar)
Director (IA)
Copy to :1. All Members of the Committee
2. PS to MEF
3. PPS to Secretary (E&F)/IGF and SS
4. Joint Secretaries (MOEF)/Advisers (MOEF)/DS(A)/Director (IFD)
5. Guard File.
Copy along with a copy of O.M. dated 6.4.99 also to :Dr. S.N. Kaul, Acting Director,
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)
Nehru Marg, Nagpur –440 020
65
ANNEXURE-I(c)
(COPY)
MOST IMMEDIATE
No. Z-12011/3/99/IA-III
Government of India
Ministry of Environment & Forests
Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO Complex,
Lodhi Road, New Delhi – 110 003
Dated: 23 -4-1999
CORRIGENDUM
In partial modification of our earlier O.M. of even number dated 6.4.1999, it has been
decided that Father Cecil J. Saldanha, Professor, Centre for Taxonomic Studies, St. Joseph
College, Bangalore –560 025 will serve as a member in place of Prof. N. Balakrishnan Nair who
has regretted his inability to serve the Committee.
2.
This issues with the approval of the competent authority.
Sd/--------(R. Anandakumar)
Director (IA)
To
Father Cecil J. Saldanha,
Professor,
Centre for Taxonomic Studies,
St. Joseph College, Bangalore – 560 025.
Copy to :1.
All Members of the Committee
2.
PS to MEF
3.
PPS to Secretary (E&F)/IGF and SS(VV)
4.
PS to AS(RP)
5.
Joint Secretary (VR)/Director (Admin)/Director (IFD)
6.
Guard File
66
ANNEXURE-I(d)
(COPY)
URGENT
BY SPEED POST
No. Z-12011/3/99/IA-III
Government of India
Ministry of Environment & Forests
Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO Complex,
Lodhi Road, New Delhi – 110 003
Dated: 5-7-1999
CORRIGENDUM
In continuation of this Ministry’s O.M. of even number dated 6.4.1999 regarding
constitution of a Committee for laying down parameters for designating an area as ecologically
sensitive, it has been further decided to include the following as Members of this Committee:(a) Mrs. K. Raghunath.
3, Circular Road, Chankya Puri,
New Delhi – 110 021.
(b) Dr. Deepak R. Sawant,
Chairman, Maharashtra Electronics Corpn. Ltd.
(MELTRON), M.M.R.D.A. Building,
‘E’ Block, Bandra – Kurla Complex,
Bandra (East), Mumbai – 400 051.
2.
This issues with the approval of the competent authority.
Sd/----------(K.P.S. Chauhan)
Additional Director (S)
Tele. No. 4360769.
To
(a) Mrs. K. Raghunath,
3, Circular Road, Chankya Puri,
New Delhi – 110 021.
67
(b) Dr. Deepak R. Sawant,
Chairman,
Maharashtra Electronics Corporation Ltd.
(MELTRON), M.M.R.D.A. Building, ‘E’ Block,
Bandra – Kurla Complex,
Bandra (East), Mumbai – 400 051.
Copy to :1. All Members of the Committee
2. PS to MEF
3. PPS to Secretary (E&F)/IGF and SS(VV)
4. PS to AS(RP)
5. Joint Secretary (VR)/Director(Admin)/Director (IFD)
6. Guard File.
68
ANNEXURE – 2
List of Experts and Organisations Contacted by the Committee
1.
Prof. Raghavendra Gadakar,
Chairman, Centre for Ecological Sciences
Bangalore – 562 012.
2.
The Secretary General,
World Wide Fund for Nature,
172-B, Lodi Estate, Max Mueller Marg,
New Delhi – 110 003.
3.
Prof. L. Kannan,
Centre Incharge,
Centre for Advanced Studies in Marine Biology,
Annamalai University,
Parangipettai – 608502.
4.
The Executive Director,
Environmental Planning and Coordination Organization,
‘Kachner’ Paryavaran Parisar
E-5 Sector, Arera Colony, Bhopal – 462016 (M.P.)
5.
Dr. S.M. Palni,
Director, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan
Environment & Development
Kosi – Katarmal – 263 643 (U.P.)
6.
Dr. V.S. Vijayan,
Director,
Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,
Kalayampalayam, Coimbatore – 641010.
7.
Prof. C. R. Babu,
Deptt. of Botany, University of Delhi,
Delhi – 110 007.
8.
The Director,
Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute,
Pacha Palode, Thiruvananthapuram.
69
9.
The Director,
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS),
Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai – 400 023.
10.
Shri M.G. Gopal,
Director,
Environmental Protection Training & Research Institute,
Survey No. 91/4, Gachibodli Village,
Serilingampally Mandal, Hyderabad – 500 019.
11.
The Director,
Indian Institute of Forest Management,
P.B. No. 3577, Nehru Nagar,
Bhopal –462 003 (M.P.)
12.
Dr. Desh Bandhu,
President, Indian Environmental Society,
U-112, Vidatha House,
Vikas Marg, Shakarpur,
Delhi – 110 092.
13.
The Hon. Secretary,
Andhra Pradesh Natural History Society,
11-2-6, Dasapalla Hills,
Visakhapatnam – 530 003 (A.P.)
14.
The Chairman,
Assam Valley Wildlife Society,
Pertabghur Tea Estate,
P.O. Charaili- 784176,
Sonitpur Distt.
15.
The Secretary.
Nature Conservation Society (NCS),
Ranchi Road, Redma,
Daltonganj – 822101,
Palamu Distt.
16.
The Hon. Secretary,
Conservation Society Delhi (CSD),
N-7/C, Saket, New Delhi – 110 017.
70
17.
The Chairman,
Indian Institute of Ecology and Environment (IIEE),
A-15, Paryavaran Complex,
Saket Maidan Garhi Road, New Delhi – 110 030.
18.
The Director General.
Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH),
Bharatiyam, Near Humayun Tomb,
Nizamuddin, New Delhi – 110 013.
Ms. Sunita Rao, Kalpavriksh – Environmental Action Group (KV),
C-17/A, Munirka, New Delhi – 110 067.
19.
The Secretary,
Himalayan Nature and Environment Preservation Society,
Om Bhawan, Chaura Maidan, Shimla – 171004 (H.P.)
20.
Dr. B.D. Sharma,
Mountain Eco-conservation & Wildlife
Society of India (MEWS – India),
Post Box 78, Jammu – 180 001 (J&K).
21.
The President and Director,
Centre for Action, Research and Technology
for Man, Animal and Nature (CARTMAN),
870, 17E Main, VI Block, Koramangala,
Bangalore – 560 095.
22.
The Senior Professor and Head,
Indian Society of Soil Biology and Ecology,
Department of Entomology,
University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bangalore – 560 065.
23.
The Chief Executive,
Wildlife Association of South India (WASI),
17/1, Victoria Road, Bangalore – 560 047.
24.
Dr. R.S. Lal Mohan, Scientist,
Conservation of Nature Trust,
B/24, Gandhi Nagar, West Hill,
Calicut – 673 005.
25.
The President,
Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishat,
Parishat Bhavan, Guruvayoor Road,
Thrissur – 680 004 (Kerala).
71
26.
The Secretary,
Prakrithi Samrakshna Samiti
(Society for Conservation of Nature)
Varada Nandavanam,
Thiruvananthapuram – 695 001.
27.
The General Secretary,
Madhya Pradesh Vigyan Sabha (MPVS),
E-5/44, Arera Colony,
Bhopal – 462 014 (M.P.)
28.
The Executive Director,
Ecological Society (ECOSOC),
1-B, Abhimanshree Society,
Pashan Road, Pune – 411008.
29.
The President,
Society for Conservation of Forest and Wildlife,
21/A, Asmita, Swanand Society,
Shakar Nagar 1, Parwati,
Pune – 411 009.
30.
The Hon. Secretary,
Nature and Wildlife Conservation Society,
Mayur Bhavan, Janpath, Saheed Nagar,
Bhubaneswar – 751 007 (Orissa).
31.
The Director,
French Institute of Pondicherry,
11, St. Louis Street,
P.B. 33, Pondicherry – 605 001.
32.
The Chairman,
Green Earth Foundation,
C-141 A, Mahavir Marg,
Malviya Nagar, Jaipur – 302018.
33.
The General Secretary,
Tarun Bharat Sangha, Bheekampura,
P.O. Kishore, Thanagazi Tehsil,
Alwar Distt. PIN 301 022.
34.
The Chairman,
Wildlife Conservation Society of India (WCSI),
‘Vishwa Vihar’, K/68, Krishna Gangh,
Anasagar Link Road, Ajmer – 305 001 (Raj.)
72
35.
The Secretary,
Centre for Himalayan Environment and Development,
At Halda-pani, Near Akashvani Kendra,
Gopeshwar – 246401, Chamoli Distt.
36.
The General Secretary,
Indian Society of Environment,
7/183, Swarup Nagar,
Kanpur – 208 002 (U.P.)
37.
The Secretary,
International Society for Tropical Ecology (ISTE),
Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi – 221005 (U.P.)
38.
The Hon. Secretary,
Wildlife Preservation Society of India,
7, Astley Hall,
Dehradun – 248001 (U.P.)
39.
The Secretary,
Indian Society for Wildlife Research,
122 B, Southern Avenue, 3rd Floor,
Calcutta – 700029 (W.B.)
40.
The Director,
Ramakrishna Mission Lokashiksha Parishad,
P.O. Narendrapur – 743 508
South 24 Parganas Distt.
41.
The Convenor,
The Science Association of Bengal (SAB),
104, Diamond Harbour Road,
P.O. Barisha,
Calcutta – 700008 (W.B.)
73
Annexure 3
INDICATORS
COMPONENTS
a) Range of biodiversity components; vegetational
density; rich density; rich genetic stock, land races
and wild relatives of crop plants.
b) Habitats for breeding and feeding grounds;
corridors for migrother terrestrial for migratory
birds and other terrestrial and aquaticFauna.
a) High biological diversity index of plant and
animal community, and key stone species.
b) Specially adapted habitats.
1
RICHNESS
2
DIVERSITY
3
ENDEMISM and RARITY
a) High endemic and rare value of species.
b) Centres of endemism.
4
UNIQUENESS
a) Representative natural areas, with unique
assemblage of plants and animals.
b) Representative inter-tidal zones, creeks, estuaries,
mangroves, corals.
c) Places of outstanding natural heritage and beauty.
d) Natural sites of archaeological, historical and
religious significance.
5
SPECIATION
a) Centres of speciation.
b) Centres of evolution.
6
SPECIES STATUS
a) Rate of specicies depletion/extinction.
b) Occurrence of endangered and threatened plant
and animal species; Schedule I species of Wildlife
Protection Act.
c) Rate of recolonisation by alien and exotic species.
74
7
ECOLOGICAL
CRITICALITY
a)
Representative biogeographic locations and
functions; transitional and buffer zones; sand
dunes, cold and hot desert habitats; natural
grassland, pasture and alpine meadows; ecotone
areas, reserved and notified forests.
b) Hydrological regime including rate of ground
water recharge, water criticality, deficiency,
conservancy; shallowness of seasonal rivers;
salinity and brackish water.
c) Geological seismicity; elevation over 1000m
and steep slopes.
8
SOCIO-ECONOMIC
CRITICALITY
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
Densely populated areas with high rate of
pollution, including vehicular pollution.
Tribal settlement/tribal population over 50% of
total population.
Significant level of water logging/soil erosion due
to human impact.
Only source of drinking water for local
community.
Chemical contamination of food chain; trophic
level disturbance of food chain.
Bufer zone of protected areas.
Silvicultural system – over harvesting, canopy
change, threat of human use.
Representative green belt areas with harmonious
human-nature interface.
Representative ecologically sensitive areas with
good ambient air quality.
75
APPENDIX 1
AREAS REPRESENTING WILD RELATIVES
CULTIVATED FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PLANTS*
OF
UNDER
FRUITS
AREAS
Duchesnea indica, Elaeagnus hortensis, Ficus palmata,
Morus spp., Prunus acuminata, P. cerasoids, P. cornuta,
P. napaulensis, P. prostrata, P. tomentosa, Pyrus baccata,
P. communis, P. Kumaont, P. pashia, Ribes gracial, R. nigrum,
Rubus ellipticus, R. moluccanus, R. fruticosis, R. lasiocarpus,
R. lanatus, R. niveus, R. reticulatus, Zizyphus vulgaris.
Western
Himalaya
Duchewsnea indica, Morus spp., Myrica esculenta, Prunus
Acuminata, P. cornuta, P. jenkinsii, P. napaulensis, Pyrus
pashia, Ribes graciale, Rubus lineatus, R. ellipticus, R.
lasiocarpus, R. moluccanus, R. reticulatus.
Eastern
Himalaya
EXPLOITED
Citrus assamensis, C. ichangensis, C. indica, C. jambhiri, C.
North-eastern
latipes, C. macroptera, C. medica, C. aurantium, Docynia indica, Region
D. hookeriana, Eriobotrya angustifolia, Mangifera sylvatica,
Musa acuminata/M. balbisiana complex, M. mannii, M. sikkimensis, M. superba, M. velutina, Myrica esculenta, Pyrus
purifolia, Prunus cerasoides, P. jenkinsii, Ribes graciale, Rubus
ellipticus, R. moluccanus, R. reticulatus, R. lastocarpus
Aegle marmelos, Cordia myxa, C. rothii, Emblica officinalis,
Gangetic plains
Grewia asiatica, Morus spp., Phoenix spp., Sygygium spp.,
Zizyphus nummularia and other species; and Manilkara hexandra
(more in north-western plains).
Less occurrence of Syzygium, rich variation in Carissa congesta; Indus plains
Artocarpus heterophyllus, A. lakoocha, Garcinia indica,
Diospyros spp., Ensete superba, Mangifera indica, Manilkara
Hexandra, Spondias pinnata, Vitis spp., Zizyphus oenoplia, Z.
Rugosa, Rubus ellipticus, R. lasiocarpus, R. moluccanus.
76
Western
peninsular tract
VEGETABLES
Abelmoschus manihot (tetraphyllus forms), Cucumis hardwickii,
A. trigonus, Luffa echinata, L. graveolens, Solanum incanum,
Tychosanthes multiloba, T. himalensis.
Western Himalaya
Abelmoschus manihot, Cucumis trigonus, Luffa graveolens,
Neoluffa sikkimensis.
Eastern Himalaya
Abelmoschus manihot (pungens form), Alocasia macrorrhiza,
North-eastern
Amorphophallus bulbifer, Colocasia esculenta, Cucumis hystrix, Region
B. trigonus, Dioscorea alata, Luffa graveolens, Moghania vestita,
Momordica cochinchinensis, M. macrophylla, M. subangulata,
Trichosanthes cucumerina, T. dioica, T. dicaelosperma, T. khasiana,
T. ovata, T. truncata, Solanum indicum.
Abelmoschus tuberculatus, A. manihot (tetraphyllus form), Luffa Gangetic plains
Echinata, Momordica cymbalaria, M. dioica, M. cochinchinensis,
Solanum incanum, S. indicum.
Momordica balsamina, Citrullus colocynthis, Cucumis
prophetarum.
Indus plains
Abelmoschus angulosus, A. moschatus, A. manihot (pungens
Western
form), A. ficulneus, Amorphophallus campanulatus, Cucumis
peninsular tract
setosus, C. trigonus, Luffa gravelones, Momordica cochinchinensis, M. subangulata, Solanum indicum, Trichosanthes anamalaiensis, T. bracteata, T. cuspidata, T. horsfieldii, T. perottitiana,
T. neriifolia, T. villosa.
Amorphophallus campanulatus, Abelmoschus manihot, A.
Moschatus, Colocasia antiquorum, Cucumis hystrix, C.
Sentosus, Luffa acutangula var. amara, L. graveolens, L.
Umbellata, Momordica cymbalaria, M. denticulata, M. dioica,
M. cochinchinensis, M. subangulata, Solanum indicum, S.
Nelongena (insanum type), Trichosanthes bracteta, T. cordata,
T. lepiniana, T. himalensis, T. multiloba.
*based on Arora, R.K. and Anjula Pandey (1996).
Eastern
peninsular tract
Wild Edible Plants of India : Diversity, Conservation and Use. NBPGR,
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India.
77
APPENDIX 2
AREAS REPRESENTI NG LAND RACES AND PRIMATIVE CULTIVATORS*
CROPS
AREAS
Cereals
Rice
Maize
Wheat
:
North-eastern region ikn Arunachal Pradesh, Garo and Khasi hills
of Meghalaya; Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland; North Bengal
and Sikkim; and the mountain Tracts of upper Assam including
Mikir hills and Cachar (more attention required in these areas)
:
Tribal dominated tracts of eastern and central India, including
Jeypore tract of Orissa, Koraput, Keonjhar, Kalahandi, Santhal
Parganas and Chotanagpur hills of Bihar; Bastar, Rewa, Bilaspur,
Sarguja, Raigarh, Raipur and adjoining tract in M.P.; and hill
agency areas of east Godavari and adjoining region in Andhra
Pradesh.
:
Chikmagalur, Shimoga and adjoining tracts in Karnatka extending
to mountains of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the Western Ghats.
:
Western Himalayan region including H.P.; J & K, and U.P. hills in
Uttarkhand and Kumaon Himalays.
:
North-eastern region, Cachar and Mikir hills, Arunachal Pradesh
and North Bengal.
:
Tribal areas of peninsular region in A.P., Orissa, Bihar and
Northern M.P.
:
Mountain belt of Nilgiris and Pulney hills of Karnataka and
Chikmagalur.
:
Western Himalays, Chamba and adjoining areas in H.P., Kumaon
and Uttarkhand in U.P. hills.
:
Particularly in Northern India, hilly tracts in Western Himalayas;
Kinnaur, Lahaul and Spiti, Pangi valley in H.P., extending to
Ladakh in Kashmir; also Baramula, Usmaro, Gurez valley in J &K.
:
Eastern region in North Bengal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
78
:
Peninsular North-western, Central plains; drier tracts of
Maharashtra, Karnataka and A.P.
:
Peninsular tract, Western and Northern M.P., and Western India
in Rajasthan, Eastern Maharashtra and Parts of Karnataka.
:
Western and Eastern Himalayas in areas indicated above for
wheat (naked and hooded types), in North Bihar and in other
areas of peninsular India in wheat belt (husked types).
Secale
:
Dry cold arid areas of Ladakh, Lahaul and Spiti, Pangi Valley
and Kinnaur in particular, sporadic distribution Occurs in higher
elevation, above 2100 m.
Buckwheat
:
Hilly tract of North-eastern region, particularly in Arunachal
Pradesh and Sikkim.
:
Western Himalayas – in Pangi valley, Lahaul and Spiti, Kinnaur
and adjoining region in H.P., U.P. hills in Garhwal, Uttarkhand and
Kumaon; and in Kashmir Valley including Ladakh.
:
North-eastern region in North Bengal, Sikkim and in particular
Arunachal Pradesh.
:
Western Himalays in H.P., U.P. hills and Kashmir.
:
North-western and Central plains; Eastern Maharashtra.
:
Tribal tracts of M.P. in Bastar, and adjoining region in A.P.
– Cuddapah, East-Godavari, Srikakulum and Visakhapatnam
and Khammam; Santhal Parganas and Chotanagpur in Bihar,
Chandrapur and adjoining tract in Maharashtra; and Gunjam,
Kalahandi and adjoining hilly tract in Orissa.
:
Western part of Tamil Nadu in Coimbatore and Salem, and also
hills of Karnataka.
:
The foot hill region of the Himalayas.
:
North-eastern hills, bordering Burma.
:
Particularly tribal belt of Gujarat and Western Rajasthan. Also in
adjacent M.P. and Karnataka.
Barley
Amaranth
Millets
Sorghum
Pearl millet
79
Lesser Millets
Foxtail millet
(Setaria italica)
:
Western and North-eastern region including the Himalayan tract
and sub-tropical Assam, hilly region and adjoining areas in
particular.
:
Tribal belt of peninsular India, particularly in M.P., A.P., Orissa
and adjoining Bihar.
:
In Western Ghats, Eastern Maharashtra and South- wards, more
in drier tract.
Finger millet
(Eleusine
coracana)
:
Tribal belt of peninsular India, particularly in North of M.P. and
Tamil Nadu, A.P. and Orissa; and also lower hills – up to 2,100m
in the Himalayas.
Kodo millet
(Paspalum
Scrobiculatum)
:
Central peninsular belt in M.P., Bihar and Orissa in particular.
Sawan
(Echinochloa
Colonum)
:
The above areas (for kodo) and the hills of North- western and
Eastern region.
Cheena or
:
Prosomillet (Panicum
Miliaceum)
Hills of H.P., U.P., particularly higher elevation, also in parts of
Gujarat and Maharashtra and in Bihar and Bengal, extending to
Arunachal Pradesh.
Panicum miliare
:
Tribal belt of A.P., Orissa, Bihar, M.P. and Maharashtra,
particularly in Orissa-Kalahandi, Keonjhar and Phulbani; adjacent
parts of M.P. and Bihar; and in W. Bengal.
Coix laryma-jobi
(soft-shelled forms)
:
North-eastern part in Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram
and Nagaland; particularly in Garo and Khasi hills of
Meghalaya.
Grain and Other Legumes
Green Gram
(Vigna radiata)
:
Tribal agency areas of East Godavari and adjoining tract in A.P.,
also in Warangal and Khammam; and Orissa – Phulbani,
Kalahandi and other tribal tribal tracts extending to M.P.
southwards, East/West wards.
:
Northern India, in comparatively drier areas of Hissar (Haryana)
and Ferozepur (Punjab).
80
:
Western India, tribal tracts in Dhulia, Prabhani, Aurangabad
in maharashtra; Panchmahal and Kaira Tract in Gujarat; also
Dharwar and neighbouring tract in Karnataka.
:
Hill tracts of H.P., valley and other areas; U.P. hills in Nainital,
Rampur and adjoining tracts; in North Bengal and Upper Assam.
:
Tribal belt of peninsular India as indicated above for green gram;
agency areas of Godavari and adjoining tract, Guntur and Krishna
in A.P.; Raipur, Durg and Bilaspur in M.P.; and Santhal Parganas,
Ranchi, Bhagalpur, Singhbhum and Purnea in Bihar.
:
In Western India, Kutch, Surat and Panchmahal in Gujarat; and
Eastern Maharashtra mainly.
:
Northern plains, in U.P. particularly Sitapur, Barabanki, Hardoi
and Bareilly; Ambala in Haryana and Ferozepur In Punjab.
:
North-eastern region including Assam plains; adjoining hill
regions; North Bengal and Sikkim; and particularly Garo and
Khasi hills of Meghalaya, Manipur and Mizoram tracts.
:
Tribal belts of Orissa and Bihar; and the agency areas of East
Godavari in A.P., particularly Kalahandi and Phulbani in
Orissa and Santhal Parganas in Bihar.
:
Kutch, Kaira aqnd other dry areas in Gujarat; West Rajasthan;
and Eastern Maharashtra (mainly North-west Drier plains).
:
Tribal agency areas of A.P., East Godavari; Krishna and (Vigna
trilobata) adjoining tract ofTamil Nadu.
:
Tribal belt of peninsular India, particularly in Kalahandi Phulbani,
Keonjhar and other tracts of Orissa; and Adjoining U.P., and Bihar
(largely Eastern peninsular tract and adjoining region).
:
Hill region of North-east, mainly in Mizoram.
Bengal gram
(Cicer arietinum)
:
Bundelkhand area in U.P., Banda, Jhansi; Raipur, Chattarpur, and
Bilaspur in M.P., and other areas of Eastern U.P.
Lentil
(Lens culinaris)
:
Western Himalayan region of H.P., and U.P. hills in particular;
and parts of M.P., central peninsular tract.
Black gram
(Vigna mungo)
Rice bean
(Vigna umbellata)
Moth bean
(Vigna aconitifolia)
Pilipasara
Red gram
81
:
Eastern Himalayas in North Bengal and adjoining areas (sporadic).
:
Hill regions of Northern and Eastern India, including North-eastern
hilly tribal tract.
:
Tribal tracts of A.P., Orissa, Bihar and M.P.
:
Partly in Western Ghats, and Maharashtra southward and
particularly Karnataka hills, Chikmagalur and other areas.
Eggplant
:
Eastern peninsular and North-eastern region.
Okra
Cucurbits
:
Gangetic and Western arid plains; North-eastern region.
Pointed gourd
:
Gangetic plains and North-eastern region.
Round gourd
:
Parts of Haryana mainly Gangetic plains, Northern part.
Bitter gourd
:
Gangetic plains; Central highlands and North-eastern Region.
Ridge & smooth
Gourd
:
Gangetic plains mainly.
Snake gourd
:
Eastern and Western peninsular region; North-eastern Region.
Cucumber
:
Spordic diversity available all through, including the Himalayan
region.
Leafy types
:
Gangetic plains and the North-eastern region (Amaranth
Brassicae); Himalayan region.
Banana/Musa spp.
:
Eastern and Western peninsular region; North-eastern Region.
Jack fruit
:
Western peninsular region, Western Ghats; Central high Lands
and adjoining Gangetic plains.
Jamun
:
Gangetic plains; Western peninsular region, Northern Part in
Maharashtra; Western plains.
Indian gooseberry/
Emblica officinalis
:
Gangetic plains mainly.
Cowpea (Vigna
unguiculata)
Vegetables
Fruits/Nuts
82
Pyrus/Prunus/Rubus :
Western and Eastern Himalayas.
Walnut
:
Western Himalayas, cold arid and temperate (ca 3000m) belt.
Jute and tree cotton
:
North-eastern region.
Ginger
:
North-eastern region; parts of H.P.; Eastern and Western
peninsular region.
Turmeric
:
Eastern and Western peninsular region.
Black pepper
:
Western Ghats – mainly Southern part.
Black caraway
:
Cold arid belt – Western Himalayas.
Sugarcane
:
Eastern and Western peninsular region mainly, sporadic Variability
in North-eastern regions
Miscellaneous
*based on Paroda, R.S. and R.K. Arora (1991).
Plant Genetic Resources : Conservation and Management. International Board
for Plant Genetic Resources, Regional Office for South and South-east Asia, New Delhi, India.
83
APPENDIX 3
AREAS REPRESENTING WILD RELATIVES AND RELATED TYPES*
CROPS
AREAS
(A) Cereals and Millets
Three Avena sps., one Aegilops sp., one Digitaria sps,
Three Hordeum sps., three Elymus sps. three
Eremopyrum sps. and one Pennisetum orientale sp.
Western Himalayas
Hordeum agricrithon .
Eastern Himalayas
One Digitaria cruciata sp., three Coix sps., One Oryza
rufipogon sp., one Polytoca wallichiana.sp.
North-eastern Region
One Panicum psilopodium sp., one Oryza nirvara sp.,
One Chionachne koenigii sp.
Gangetic plains
One Panicum psilopodium sp., One Sclerophyllum sp.
One Coarctatum sp., Setaria glauca, two Chionachne
sps., one Coix gigantea sp. One Trilobachne
Cookei sp.
Western peninsular tract
Five Oryza sps., one Sclerophyllum coarctatum sp.,
one Polytoca digitata sp.
Eastern peninsular tract
Two Eleusine sps., one Echinochloa crusgalli sp.,
Four Setaria sps.
Widely distributed
(B). Legumes
Cicer microphyllum, Lathyrus aphaca, Moghania vestita,
Mucuna capitata, Trigonella emodi, threeVigna sps.
Western Himalayas
Two Moghania sps., three Vigna sps.
Eastern Himalays
Three Atylosia sps., Canavalia ensiformis, Moghania
Vestita, Mucuna bracteta, three Vigna sps.
North-eastern Region
Four Atylosia sps., three Trigonella sps., Lathyrus
aphaca, Vicia sativa, two Vigna sps.
Gangetic plains
84
Two Vigna sps., Trigonella occulta, Atylosia scarabaeoides, Lathyrus aphaca.
Indus plains
Fifteen Atylosia sps., two Canavalia sps., two Dolichos
sps., Mucuna pruriens, seven Vigna sps.
Western peninsular tract
Ten Atylosia sps., Dolichus purpureus-lignosus types,
Four Vigna sps.
Eastern peninsular tract
(C). Fruits
Elaeagnus hortensis, Ficus palmata, Fragaria indica,
Morus spp. Six Prunus sps., four Pyrus sps., two Ribes
sps., seven Rubus sps. Zizyphus vulgaris.
Western Himalayas
Fragaria indica, Morus spp., Myrica esculenta, five
Eastern Himalays
Prunus sps., Pyrus pashia, Ribes graciale, five Rubus sps.
Eight Citrus sps., two Docynia sps., Eribotrya angustifolia, Mangifera sylvatica, seven Musa sps., two
Pyrus sps., three Prunus sps., Ribes graciale, four
Rubus sps. Myrica esculenta.
North-eastern region
Aegle marmelos, two Cordia sps., Emblica officinalis,
Gangetic plains
Grewia asiatica, Morus spp., Phoenix spp., Syzygium spp.,
Zizyphus nummularia and other spp. and Manilkara
Hexandra (more in north-western plains).
As in Gangetic plains; meagre occurrence of Syzygium,
Rich variation in Carissa congesta
Indus plains
Two Artocarpus sps. Garcinia indica, Diospyros spp.,
Ensete superba, Magnifera indica, Mimosops elengii,
Spondias pinnata, Vitis spp., two Zizyphus sps., three
Rubus sps.
Weastern peninsular tract
(D). Vegetables
Abelmoschus manihot, two Cucumis sps., two Luffa sps.
Two Solanum sps., two Trichosanthes sps.
Western Himalayas
Abelmoschus manihot, Cucumis trigonus, Luffa graveolens, Neoluffa sikkimensis.
Eastern Himalayas
Abelmoschus manihot, Alocasia macrorhiza, Amorphophallus bulbifer, Colocasia esculenta, two Cucumis sps.,
North-eastern region
85
Dioscorea alata, Luffa graveolens, Moghania vestita,
Four Momordica sps., six Tricosanthes sps., Solanum
indicum.
Two Abelmochus sps., Luffa echinata, three Momordica
sps., two Solanum sps.
Gangetic plains
Momordica balsamina, Citrullus colocynthis, Cucumis
prophetarum.
Indus plains
Four Abelmoschus sps., Amorphophallus campanulatus,
Western peninsular tract
two Cucumis sps., Luffa graveolens, two Momordica sps.,
Solanum indicum, six Trichosanthes sps.
Amorphophallus campanulatus, two Abelmoschus sps.,
Eastern peninsular tract
Colocasia antiquorum, two Cucumis sps., three Luffa
Sps., four Momordica sps., two Solanum sps., five
Trichosanthes sps.
(E). Oilseed Types
Four Lepidium sps.
Western Himalays
Brassica trilocularis types
Eastern Himalays
Brassica trilocularis types
North-eastern region
Two Brassica types sps., Carthamus oxycantha,
Sesamum indicum, Lepidium spp.
Gangetic plains
Sesanum lacniatum, S. prostratum
Western peninsular tract
Sesamum prostratum
Eastern peninsular tract
(F). Fibre Types
Linum perenne
Western Himalayas
Corchorus capsularis, Gossypium arboreum
North-eastern region
Two Corchorus sps., Urena repanda
Gangetic plains
Four Chorchorus sps., two Crotalaria sps., Lynum
mysorense
Western peninsular tract
Hibiscus cannabinus
Eastern peninsular tract
86
Urena lobata
Widely occurring
(G). Spices and Condiments
Three Allium sps., Carun bulbocastinum
Western Himalayas
Allium tuberosum, Amomum subulatum, Curcuma
Zedoaria
Eastern Himalayas
Two Alpina sps., Amomum aromaticum, two Curcuma
sps, two Piper sps.
North-eastern region
Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Curcuma montana, Myristica
Beddomei, M. malabarica, two Piper nigrum, three
Zingiber sps.
Western peninsular tract
Three Curcuma sps., Piper longum, Zingiber zerumbet
Eastern pensinsular tract
(H). Miscellaneous
Saccharum filifolium, Miscanthus nepalensis
Western Himalayas
Two Saccharum sps., two Mascanthus sps., Camellia spp. Eastern Himalayas
Naranga fallax, five Saccharum sps., four Miscanthus sps. North-eastern region
Camellia spp.
Five Saccharum sps.
Gangetic region
Saccharum longisetosum var. hookeri
Indus plains
Naranga porphyrocoma
Western peninsular tract
Naranga porphyrocoma, Saccharun ravennae
Eastern peninsular tract
*based on Paroda, R.S. and R.K. Arora (1991).
Plant Genetic Resources : Conservation and Management. International Board
for Plant Genetic Resources, Regional Office for South and South-east Asia, New Delhi, India.
87