Moisés Morales 1
Assignment # 2
THEORY
Behaviorist Theories (includes The
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis)
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Universal Grammar Theory
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Krashen’s Monitor Theory
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Cognitive Theory
(Ausubel, McLaughlin, Bialystok,
Ellis, Anderson, and others)
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BASIC TENETS
Human/animal learning similar
Blank slate no language blueprint
Only observable data
Stimuli/response behavior
Reinforcement used to strengthen
associations between stimulus and
response
Sophisticated response system, human
language, through learned response
Language specific to humans, in genes
Language learning is biological
Human language is a set of residual
universals, that are innate
Language parameters that are learned and
set upon input
Involves core grammar, part of universals
and peripheral grammar which is not
Core grammar easier to acquire than
peripheral
Two ways to develop second language
competence ACQUISITION
subconsciously and LEARNING
consciously
Acquisition/innate learning/rules and
knowledge
Natural acquisition predicts order of some
grammatical features
Learning used as editor of language
production under certain circumstances
New structures learned when exposed to
them as comprehensible input (i+1), need
not be planned, students will learn by
simply being exposed to the structure
Student must have low affective filter in
order to acquire language
Error correction should be minimal and
comprehensible input should be stressed
Learning is a mental activities and
language learning involves acquiring this
complex cognitive skill
Subskills must be practiced, automatized,
and incorporated into cognitive structure
Structures under constant change as
proficiency develops
September 20, 2009
Moisés Morales 2
Assignment # 2
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Conversation Theories
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Schumann’s Acculturation Theory
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Skills automatized through practice or
controlled processing
Learner production is variable depending
on attention to task formal/informal
Declarative knowledge/procedural
knowledge “knowing that”/ “knowing
how”
Meaningful material vs. rote learning,
material that is related to something we
already know
Stipulates participating in conversation of
TL
Using scaffolding to allow for conversation
participation by less proficient students by
prompting i.e. repeating structure and
filling in with correct information
Feedback on information or language
structure that has been uttered
Negotiation of meaning helping learning
understand and understanding of learner
language usage
Acculturation-becoming comfortable in TL
and its use
Psychological distance like affective filter
better if low
Culture shock-disorientation with new
culture
Social distance – again like affective filter
but on a macro level
1. What is the role of “practice” in these theories? How do the theories view “practice”
differently?
In Contrastive Analysis, students should practice target language and grammar to avoid
interference at some point from L1. Students need different practice depending on L1
and correct responses in native-like pronunciation should be reinforced. Universal
Grammar Theory suggests that L1 structures will transfer to TL and that due to different
NL the student may have particular needs or changes that need to occur when learning
English. Krashen’s Monitor theory has more to do with the affective filter (high
motivation, low anxiety) in other words, provide relevant information comprehensibly, at
level and above, minimal error correction, and never require students to participate orally
until they are ready. Language should be allowed to emerge eventually with proper
input. The Cognitive approach structures and organized information in the brain or takes
September 20, 2009
Moisés Morales 3
Assignment # 2
an active approach to learning as opposed to passive input like Behaviorist theory.
Conversation theory suggests that it should be relevant, at level, and scaffolded, much
like recasting with error correction. Acculturation theory is more relevant to environment
and external as well as internal beliefs about the L2 learner. Whether the learner because
of origin is more readily acceptable in the new environment and whether the learner has a
biased view of the target culture or vice versa.
2.
Theory
Krashen’s Monitor Theory
Cognitive Theory
Conversation theories
Classroom activity
 Bring in family pictures and have students
talk about then and where they are from
 Do exercises on that grammar focus, “I’m
from ..., I have …brothers and sisters, etc.”
 Warm exercises to focus attention of
students, i.e. a simple listening exercise or
not depending on level
 Introduction of agenda for the day or week,
plan on what language structures will be
introduced and studied
 Introduce grammar structure, do oral and
listening practice and later introduce
reading and writing on same structure
 I would have conversation with students
before class starts or after class starts to
lower affective filter without error
correction
 Activate background knowledge by
problem posing at beginning of class and
allow for free conversation with feedback
I think that for all theories listed above you have to lower affective filter. Students need to feel
comfortable in their surroundings and once you get that buy-in then they are more likely to be
able to stay in the class and as a potential consequence learn English. Any activity that builds
community within the classroom is useful towards lowering the affective filter; “family relics”
are always a good start.
3. Contrastive analysis theory believes that reinforced errors become permanent; therefore,
correct errors to avoid fossilization of incorrect grammar or learning. Universal Grammar
prefers not to correct to avoid raising affective filter. Krashen’s monitor theory says it should be
minimal in the classroom and that the effort should be at providing comprehensible input.
Cognitive theory is more structure specific with an attempt to learn correct grammar and so error
correction would be essential. Conversation theories suggest scaffolding as a type of recast
correction. Schumann’s acculturation theory would appear not make corrections as it could
hinder the affective filter; also, most of the learning would take place outside the classroom.
September 20, 2009
Moisés Morales 4
Assignment # 2
4. Behaviorist theories held that rote learning is the best way to learn and that along with
stimulus a reward had to be given in order to achieve success in language learning. Universal
theory implies that L1 core grammar will transfer thereby making it easier for some students to
learn the TL quicker and that stress on peripheral grammar would help facilitate learning.
Krashen’s monitor theory suggests a difference between language learning and language
acquisition and that the former is a conscious effort. Cognitive theory talks about meaningful
leaning or relevant or relatable learning for the student is what helps the student learn TL.
Conversation theory stipulates that learners that are more successful have had conversations that
are more meaningful and a larger quantity of conversations that would facilitate learning.
Schumann’s acculturation would necessitate participation with TL environment to augment
learning success in the language.
5. Having taught English to adults for 12 years, I find, in retrospect, that I have used perhaps all
or portions of all theories in teaching my students. I learned through improvisation and trial and
error, but one thing that has always been clear is that the student must want to learn the language
and not feel forced to learn it. Otherwise, you run the risk of losing the student, because he/she
was never there in the first place. Ultimately, I do not feel it is about the theories so much as it is
about the student’s way of learning and applying the theory, strategies, skills, or tools that best
mesh with the student and his/her needs. Perhaps leaning how to sequence activities to the
student would be especially beneficial to learn.
September 20, 2009