1 Special Topic:Gender Roles in Wartime and Peacetime 1840:485/585:802 Spring Semester 2008 Paula Maggio Assistant Lecturer Women’s Studies Program The University of Akron Akron, Ohio World War I: The End 1. The Armistice Armistice means a cessation of hostilities as a prelude to peace negotiations Generally referred to in context of the agreement between the Germans and the Allies to end the war on November 11, 1918. It was not the only armistice of the war. The battle on the Eastern Front and Romania’s war ended in December 1917. Bulgaria ended its war Sept. 30, 1917. Turkey ended Oct 30 & Austria-Hungary ended Nov. 3, 1918 Germans began negotiations Oct. 4, 1918, keen to conclude a peace based upon Wilson's famous Fourteen Points. However, US allies, never particularly keen on the Fourteen Points, raised immediate objections. Britain, led by Lloyd George, opposed a ban on a policy of blockades; France was intent on imposing reparations upon the 'beaten' foe. Wilson compromised by accepting both objections whilst threatening to negotiate a separate peace on behalf of the U.S. if Britain and France continued with their objections. His ploy successful, details of a proposed settlement were sent to Germany on 5 November by the Supreme War Council. A major potential stumbling block to peace was Wilson's insistence upon the abdication of the German Kaiser, Wilhelm II. This was overcome. Wilhelm's abdication was reluctantly announced to the public on 9 November 1918 (subsequently made official by the Kaiser's abdication proclamation on 28 November). The armistice was formally signed in Foch's railway carriage on 11 November (in 1940 Hitler exacted revenge by forcing the French to sign an armistice - on German terms - in the same railway carriage). Discussions were dominated by France, UK and US, along with Italy: Big Four The process was an important step toward statehood for the British Dominions, who demanded and got independent representation. 2 2. Ramifications for Germany Germany had to accept full responsibility for the outbreak of the war. This mean Germany had to make reparations payments. The terms of the armistice required the Germans to evacuate German-occupied territories on the Western Front within two weeks. Allied forces – mainly French -- were to occupy the left bank of the Rhine within a month, and a neutral zone established on the right bank to ensure payment of reparations. Germany lost 13% of its territory, which had produced 75% of the country’s output in iron ore, 30% of steel, and 28% of coal. Notably, all German-occupied territories elsewhere were to be abandoned; and the treaties already negotiated with Russia and Romania were officially annulled. In terms of military equipment, under the terms of the armistice, Germany was limited to 100K professional soldiers and heavy artillery and an air force were outlawed. The majority of Germany's surface naval fleet was interned; the remainder were disbanded. The Germans lost 5,000 artillery pieces, 30,000 machine guns, 3,000 minenwerfer, 2,000 aircraft, 5,000 locomotives, 150,000 railway wagons, 5,000 trucks and its entire submarine fleet. 3. Overall Ramifications The terms of the armistice were inevitably seen as punitive within Germany. The country however was in no condition to resume hostilities and so reluctantly accepted the conditions. The French nevertheless viewed the terms of the armistice - and the Versailles peace treaty that followed in 1919 - as overly lenient, indicating the widely contrasting views of both the armistice and the subsequent treaty. Problems with the treaty: It was too weak and too strong. It made Germany resentful, which led to treaty revision the dominant and destabilizing theme of German politics until the rise of Hitler. However, it left Germany with enough potential to re-emerge as a significant great power, unlike Austria and Hungary. The financial cost of the war is said to have amounted to almost $38 billion for Germany alone; Britain spent $35 billion, France $24 billion, Russia $22 billion, USA $22 billion and Austria-Hungary $20 billion. In total the war cost the Allies around $125 billion; the Central Powers $60 billion. Produced the worst of all worlds. Nationalistic conflicts left unresolved. Sometimes worsened. Defeated countries, barely consulted, harbored immense grievances. League of Nations weakened by US refusal to enter, due to isolationist Congress. Instabilities that resulted are seen as direct cause of WWII. Along with economic crises 1918-23 and during Great Depression that made Europe volatile and gave nationalistic movements strength. 4. U.S. Reaction Wilson wanted a “just peace.” This clashed with France’s idea to punish Germany so severely it could never start another. Britain was in between the two extremes, but had no alternative vision. Shortly after the armistice was agreed upon, President Wilson announced details to Congress, and further celebrated the agreement in a Thanksgiving Address at the close of the month. 3 US Senate failed to ratify the treaty. Separate peace concluded between US & Germany in 1921.