The role of (Christian) faith and religion in Mental Health
Dr. Jan T. de Jongh van Arkel
Lebenswelt Schenkenfelden
Austria
In this paper I have to deal with a great variety of variables which can easily lead us
onto bypaths. For the short time that I have I need to bring some sort of positive
connection between mental health and religion and have to explain the role of
religion or faith in the promotion of mental health. I have not forgotten that this is a
congress on mental health and Deafness. Although this aspect is not included in my
title I will try to conclude with a few remarks to apply what I say about faith and
mental health to the context of Deafness.
1. Definition/What is the content of mental health?
According to the definition of the WHO, “Health is a state of physical, mental and
social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” Mental health”
is a state of well-being in which the individual realises his or her own abilities, can
cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able
to make a contribution to his or her community.”
For this paper I will primarily use the following definition:
Mental health is a condition of well-being in relation to self and others characterized
by such qualities as (Aist 1990:711)
2.1
positive self-acceptance,
2.2
accurate perception of others and the world,
2.3
stability and appropriateness in mood,
2.4
balance and purposiveness in behaviour,
2.5
dependable sense of identity and values,
2.6
adaptability to one's environment,
2.7
ability to engage in productive work and fulfilling love, and
2.8
commitment to a source of devotion beyond oneself.
As such, mental health is an active process, not merely the absence of illness.
2. What is the role of faith/religion?
There is a very close relationship between religion and mental health. Mental health
is an indication of human well-being while the essence of religion also deals with
peace, joy and well-being (Heitink 1990). The scope of the Gospel of Jesus Christ is
all about life and being alive: living in the fullest sense of the word. The other side of
the coin is the concern and commitment of Christian churches through the years to
fight human tragedy, suffering and disease (Anderson 1989:123). The topic,
addressed in this paragraph, is so wide and so broad that I can only touch on a few
aspects. This written paper will provide a little more than what I will present in the
PowerPoint in order to present a richer and broader view.1.
1
Even my title shows a little of the problem I face. Religion is a broad inclusive concept. (Personal)
Faith adds another dimension and looking at the role of the church in mental health can be considered
to a topic of its own.
1
The relationship between religion and mental health is an old theme which is very
complicated. What we say about it depends on our definition of mental health, to
what extent this definition is theologically acceptable (cf. Tjeltveit 1989:134-136);
what religion are we talking about and how we operationalise religion and/or faith. It
is no wonder that researchers (Sanua 1977:177,180; Crawford Handal & Wiener
1989:16; Ellison Gay & Glass 1989:101) report conflicting empirical results. Without
any clarity about our concepts, empirical research will not be reliable.
Looking at the role of faith/religion there are a variety of emphases, for instance:
 the role of personal faith
 the role of the church and
 the role of ministers/priests/pastors in the mental health field.
All of these take place and functions within the primary, secondary and tertiary
preventative actions of mental health. I find these three aspects, used by modern
crisis theory which is directly linked with the mental health movement and preventive
services, very useful.



Primary prevention is associated with the promotion and maintenance of mental
health (that is, prior to the emergence of actual problems).
Secondary prevention is intervention in cases of acute psychic stress or crisis with
a view to preventing the crisis from becoming chronic and triggering prolonged
(mental) illness. It entails interventional activity to ensure that developing
problems are managed as speedily as possible and, if possible, resolved.
At the tertiary level help is given with post-problem rehabilitation or seeks to repair
damage caused by an incident.
Anybody who disregards the links between the roles played by faith, the church and
pastors, are not only ignorant but also stupid because he/she is not willing to use all
the known resources to contribute to the mental health of people (see Bufford &
Johnson 1982, Clinebell 1965, Larson et al. 1988).2
I will not naively draw a linear causal line between religion in general and mental
health, that is, saying that religious involvement causes psychological well-being
because it may be that “heightened participation in religious collectivities or
intensified religious experience could conceivably reflect increases in well-being”
(Ellison, Gay & Glass 1989:118). Two of my previous mentors (Wayne Oates and
2
Even those who disregard the importance of a personal religious orientation must acknowledge the
fact that clergy are the most numerous of the helping professionals and they are in the most strategic
position in the community. Not only are clergy - regardless of their training - extensively involved in
counselling, their ready access to people's homes, their traditional roles at critical points in the life
cycle, and the opportunity for utilizing many aspects of their ministry to promote community mental
health principles put them in the front line of mental health workers. clergy may be the most consulted
group in the field of mental health. Studies (Veroff, Kulka & Douvan 1981)on the use of professional
help for personal problems in the United States in 1976 established that 39% of persons who sought
help turned to clergy, 29% to psychiatrists and psychologists, 21% went to a doctor, 20% to other
mental health sources and 8% to marriage counsellors or marriage clinics. (There was some
movement from 1957 to 1976: the consultation of clergy from 42% down to 39%; doctors down from
29% to 21%; psychiatrists or psychologists up from 17% to 29%). Data from the Epidemiological
Catchment Area Study by the NIMH in the USA (Larson et al. 1988) also suggested that the clergy
were as likely as mental health professionals to be sought out for help by clients even with major
mental disorders and anxiety disorders.
2
Howard Clinebell) taught me that it is not inevitably that “religiousness” guarantees
mental health.3 Clinebell (1979:107) introduced two important concepts to distinguish
between the good and the bad forms of religion: A salugenic (health- and growthproducing) religion results when people satisfy their spiritual needs in open, lifeaffirming, reality-respecting ways, while a pathogenic (sickness producing, growth
blocking) religion results when people attempt (unsuccessfully) to satisfy their needs
in idolatrous, rigid, authoritarian, life-constricting, and reality-denying ways.
Although the Christian message does not assure mental health and is sometimes
distorted to the extent that it confines rather than liberates people, the gospel is
essentially life-creating (see De Jongh van Arkel 1990:1)4. Several long-term followup studies have found significant associations between attendance at religious
services and reduced risk of mortality (Idler 1987:227).
I want to suggest that a combination of four mechanisms in both private and public
religion have a positive effect on mental health (see also Idler 1987: 228-229)
2.1
Health behaviour.
Religiousness limits behaviour that is destructive to health. Religiously involved
people tend to behave differently with respect to known health risk factors, such as
smoking, drinking, eating meat, having multiple sexual contacts or in prescriptions for
regular periods of rest and relaxation. Even more important is how the church and the
gospel promote an active state of positive living (mental health), as well as mature
faith. People are equipped and armed with life skills that enable them to cope more
effectively with the demands and stresses of ordinary life.5 This aspect falls mainly in
the field of primary prevention.
2.2
Social cohesion.
Religiousness activates a social network that contributes to coping and support.
Religious group involvement is a psychosocial source of health: these ties provide
access to emotional, cognitive, and material support, fostering the perception that
“The term “religious”' is very ambiguous and like the word ``love'', it covers a multitude of sins... It
can refer to a very positive, ”health-giving” doctrine by which men not only survive but live and do well.
When religion becomes reified - that is, made a thing of as separate and apart from the total
expression of the whole life of the person - it becomes an external “it,” a thing apart. When this
happens, the “it” religion becomes either a segregated, autonomous system in an airtight compartment
separated from the rest of life, or it becomes a disturbing factor in the total functioning of the person. In
either instance, it is sick. In these latter instances, a person's “religion” becomes “bad news” instead of
good news. Such religion is sick and not well. When we use the word “religion,” then, we are not
necessarily saying that something is good” (Wayne Oates 1970:16).
4 The bible are full of quotes which relates the religious and health aspects. Good examples can be
found in Proverbs: "Being cheerful keeps you healthy It is slow death to be gloomy all the time."
(Proverbs 17:22)
5 In the bible one finds much about (a) the power of a positive attitude (“fill your minds with those
things that are good and that deserve praise: things that are true, noble, right, pure, lovely, and
honorable, Philippians 4:8); (b) the control of feelings and emotions (“Don't worry about anything, but
in all your prayers ask God for what you need, always asking him with a thankful heart. And God's
peace, which is far beyond human understanding, will keep your hearts and minds safe in union with
Christ Jesus” Philippians 4:6, 7 and “the Spirit (of God) produces love, joy, peace, patience, kindness,
goodness, faithfulness, humility, and self-control” Galatians 5:22, 23), (c) to take time out, to rest, (d)
to confront anxiety with the confidence about the assistance and presence of God and (e) the healing
power of humour.
3
3
he/she is cared for and respected. This usually involves both the giving of support as
well as the receiving of it.
There are empirical indications that the social integration or social support found in
religious communities is the reason that religion may positively affect health. Ferraro
and Albrecht-Jensen (1991:199, 200) found with their research that religion may
connect those who pray and participate actively in their religions, to social groups
which can play a salutary role in their lives. Ellison, Gay and Glass emphasized the
fact that the quantity of the organizational activities and the intensity of individual
bonds with an identifiable religious collectivity are important. When that is taken into
account religion may contribute to subjective well-being by increasing the social
integration of individuals (De Jongh van Arkel & Roos 1992:20).6
2.3
Cognitive coherence.
Religiousness activates a special interpretive system that gives meaning to life. We
have here the positive association between religion and health at a cognitive level.
Religious involvement here is seen as a access to a unique system of symbols,
providing cultural resources in the form of a consistent body of knowledge and set of
meanings which allow individuals to make sense of and cope with their experience,
reducing uncertainty in ordinary day life and at moments of crisis alike. Religious
involvement may offer either or both of two cognitive consequences found by other
investigators to have effects on health: the reducing of a sense of fatalism or
helplessness in the face of unpredictability of the environment on the one hand, and
the fostering of a sense of optimism on the other -- a perception that things will turn
out all right, whether one has any control over them (Idler 1987:229).
2.4
Interactive theodicy.
In a theodicy one tries to justify the acts of God and explain the problems of evil
misery and negative situations. Most religious people accept a specific understanding
of pain and suffering which makes it more “live-able” to them. it modifies their
perceptions of misery associated with physical suffering, marginal situations of
human live and thus gives them hope. In this way it is more tolerable. It need not be
“right” or even theological sound but it provides a meaning system (De Jongh van
Arkel) which makes it easier to cope with the hardships of life.
6
Social support is the fulfilment of the injunction in Galatians 6 and Romans 15 to bear one another's
burdens and failings. Thus support is theologically founded. It is also psychologically founded: anyone
experiencing situations which either cannot be changed or change very slowly, resulting in all manner
of problems, is in need of support (Pearson 1982:83). This support offers encouragement, comfort and
reassurance to people in need. Both long-term and short-term support usually has three elements
(adapted from Caplan 1974:6):
(a) It helps people in distress to mobilise their spiritual and psychological resources and thus to cope
with their burdens.
(b) The other party's burden is shared in that he or she is helped to cope with it.
(c) Distressed persons are provided with additional food, money, materials and tools, skills and
cognitive and spiritual guidance to facilitate their coping with the situation.
The relationship arising from such supportive care causes the distressed party to develop a more
positive attitude (courage, hope) towards the particular situation and also towards those providing the
support. Because of the positive feelings generated by the support, there is outreach towards the
supporter and what the supporter represents (which includes the love of Christ), because the
relationship with the supporter has become a positive, personally elevating and motivating force in the
life of the distressed person. Of course, for this response to occur the support offered has to be
genuine - it must not be offered condescendingly from "above”. Christian support always follows the
ministering model of Christ who came “not to be served but to serve” (Mk 10:45).
4
Fact is that many research studies indicated how religiousness or specific
dimensions of religiousness have positive effects on mental health of mental wellbeing of adults (Ferraro & Albrecht-Jensen 1991:194). The emphasis of the
discussion was very often on the relationship between mature faith and mental health
(vgl Overduin 1967; Cramer 1959; Cosgrove & Mallory 1977; Ellens 1982; Clinebell
1965, 1979; Simundson 1989). Two dimensions, central to the Christian message
and Christian church, which were constantly associated with positive mental health
are having a meaning and a goal in life and being involved in a functional social
supportive system (Bufford & Buckler 1987:26). Various studies (see e.g. Ellison et al
1989: 117) conclude that both public and private religion may influence life
satisfaction by alleviating the negative impact of stressful circumstances and events.
Whereas high levels of commitment and religious experience may equip people with
personal resources that are functional for coping with trauma, integration in religious
gatherings may provide instrumental social support, as well as the reinforcement of
shared values and the necessary clarification or interpretation of events.
Important is the fact that it is more the combination of these four aspects or
mechanisms, than only one alone which may indicate the positive effect of faith on
mental health. Each of these aspects on its own can also be provided by other
(secular) activities
3. What are the specific mental health problems of Deaf?
Prelingual deafness entails far-reaching communicative problems with profound
consequences for cognitive, social and emotional development (Fellinger et al
2005b) as well as in ordinary day-to-day life. Clear to all of us working in this field is
that Deaf have enormous personal and socio-economical disadvantages in society
(Fellinger et al. 2005: 45). Living in isolation for their first years (91,7% have hearing
parents), living in hearing families as “problem” children and then being part of a
cultural minority who are excluded from main-stream communication modes. The
question about the specific mental health problems of Deaf is so huge that I will only
summarise a few findings to work with. Just listing problems noted by researches7
includes:
 a low rated physical and psychological quality of life,
 mental distress and illness,
 behaviour, personality and adjustment problems,
 developmental problems related to the communication restrictions,
 many deaf children have poor psychological development and poor selfimages
 depression problems,
 psychological and behaviour problems because of psychotropic substances,
 affective disturbances,
 neurotic, nervous tension
 somatic disturbances,
 stress.
 victims of abuse,
7
This is a summary found in books, articles and papers where the mental health problems of Deaf
are addressed such as Denmark (1994), Hindley and Kitson (2000), Hjortsø, Von der Lieth & Carlsen,
Part I and II (2001), Fellinger et al., Health and Well-being Congress, Bad Ischl (2003).
5


interpersonal sensitivity and feelings of insecurity and inferiority living in a
hearing world.
many young deaf people with hearing parents present problems of behaviour
and adjustment within the home, at school, at work or in the community
People who are deaf are:
 more likely to be diagnosed with depression or anxiety
 more likely to be diagnosed as suffering from a personality disorder or having
behavioural or adjustment problems
 no more likely to have paranoid illnesses although among older people
acquired deafness with age is a risk factor for conditions
 often misdiagnosed as having learning difficulties, having been assessed by
people with whom they are unable to communicate effectively
For some deaf people, the experiences associated with deafness, particularly
communication difficulties, are so damaging that they reach adult life with many
social and behavioural difficulties. These people may experience loss of confidence,
low self-esteem, embarrassment, they may become withdrawn, or dependent upon
other people, resulting in limited lifestyles and restricted opportunities. Further
secondary effects of their deafness are under-stimulation, behavioural problems,
inappropriate behaviour, dependency and isolation.
4. Faith and mental health for Deaf.
Applying all of this to the field of deafness is not easy because there is no direct
application possible. The first problem we encounter is the question about Deafness
and faith or Deafness and church. The history of this relationship is not spotless and
poses many challenges for today (Broesterhuizen 2005; Black 1998; Bateson 1996;
Linderman 1999; VanGilder 1998).
While Gallup polls indicate that more than 40% of Americans attend churches,
synagogues or mosques on a regular basis, there is no real statistic for Deaf. This is
however calculated to be only about 6% in the USA and less than 2% worldwide
(Linderman 1999). If this is true is has the implication that only a small amount of
deaf will have access to this mental health facility.
The problems of Deaf attending normal churches for hearing are multitude if one
would view it from the perspective of Deaf culture: the language, the symbols, the
centrality of preaching the “Word”, the traditions and the culture are so different and
not usually adapted to the visual world of Deaf. In the preaching adaptation to the
experiential world of Deaf is often absent, and the liturgy through music, singing and
praying with closed eyes not deaf friendly at all.
On the positive side we find also a real effort in various countries and churches to
accommodate Deaf, to train Deaf leaders in the church and form own congregations
for Deaf. There is a new sensitivity among some to accept the basic cultural
differences which have lead to different churches for different languages and cultural
groups, also apply to Deaf. Although I could not find any research on the mental
6
health effect of these “new”8 churches it can be accepted that it will be the same as
that of hearing churches. It is also not so clear how the caring actions, which is so
central to the theme of my paper, function.
In the field of pastoral care and counselling there has been a new interest in cultural
diversity and how to address these issues (Augsburger 1986; Bohn 1995; Lartey
1997; Strange 1992). Using these insights will be a great help to apply to the
inculturalisation process of mental health and faith of Deaf.
Why is all of this so important? Because of the significant role of a personal faith
conviction for mental health. And Deaf should not be excluded from this opportunity!
Charles Gerkin (1979) maintains that we moderns no longer have a clear perception
of divine providence, which makes us more vulnerable to the vacuum of a crisis. In
crises despair and lack of direction feature prominently: there is no support (Support),
no security, no future left - only a sense of personal helplessness. Giving (religious)
meaning to our problems facilitate a grasp of faith in God's providence coming toward
the us out of the very openness and contingency of the problem situation. This
theological dimension creates both hope and a future.
Through deaf clubs and good social structures Deaf have obtained fairly good social
structures for support. I do however believe that what can be provided by churches
would add additional resources. The emphasis is not on the social aspect but the
caring-for-each-other, the carrying of one another’s burden (Gal 6) and helping the
weak to carry their burdens (Rom 15). Congregations for Deaf constructed in this way
will become ecologies of care (De Jongh van Arkel, 1992) which breaks through the
isolation and feelings of inferiority. Here they will experience not only the support of
other Christians but also of God and his Spirit.9
In short, the mental health of Deaf – like all other people - can benefit from the
mechanisms of health behaviour, social cohesion, cognitive cohesion and an
interactive theodicy associated with religion. The American psychiatrist Karl Menninger
(1966) long ago said that “religion has been the world's psychiatrist throughout the
centuries”. Let us use this option and develop its potential.
8
It is not really new in historical sense because the first churches for Deaf have been formed in the
19th century. But the newness lies in the efforts to really make it deaf-friendly with own bible
translations, adapted liturgies and using modern communication technologies.
9 Kathy Black (1998:12) describes the social advantages of a Deaf church: “Understanding the many
purposes of the Deaf church is integral to understanding the issues of justice that emerge in the
context of preaching. The Deaf church is not simply the community that gathers for Worship and the
various ministries of the church. The Deaf church (like other linguistic minority churches) is one of the
safe havens in the community where the language and culture of the community are preserved,
celebrated, and passed down to future generations. Often not able to easily communicate in their
various neighborhoods and jobs during the week, people who are deaf gather on Sunday mornings
(and frequently stay for many, many hours!) not only for spiritual nurture but also for a true sense of
community—a sense of acceptance and belonging. The Passing of the Peace may take as long as the
sermon. When the community gathers, it is important for every person to greet every other person
during this time.”
7
4.
References
AIST, C.S. 1990. Mental health and illness. in Hunter, R.J. Dictionary of pastoral care and counseling.
Nashville: Abingdon. p. 711-714.
ANDERSON, H. 1989. The congregation: health center or healing community. Word & World. 11,
123-131.
AUGSBURGER, D.W. 1986. Pastoral counseling across cultures. Philadelphia: Westminster.
BLACK, K. 1998. A perspective of the disabled: Transforming images of God, interdependence, and
healing, in Smith, C.M. Preaching justice: Ethnic and cultural perspectivesCleveland, Ohio:
United Church Press , 6-25.
BOHN, C.R. (Edit) 1995. Therapeutic practice in a cross-cultural world: Theological, psychological and
ethical issues. Decatur, GA: Journal of Pastoral Care Publications.
BROESTERHUIZEN, M. 2005. Faith in Deaf Culture, Theological Studies: 66 (2), 304-329.
BUFFORD, R.K. & BUCKLER, R.E. 1987. Counseling in the church: a proposed strategy for
ministering to mental health needs in the church. Journal of Psychology and Christianity. 6(2),
21-29.
BUFFORD, R.K. & JOHNSTON, T.B. 1982. The church and community mental health: unrealized
potential. Journal of Psychology and Theology. 10, 355-362.
CAPLAN, G. 1974. Support systems and community health. New York: Basic Books.
CLINEBELL, H.J. 1965. Mental health through Christian community: the local church's ministry of
growth and healing. New York: Abingdon.
CLINEBELL, H.J. (Edit) 1970. Community mental health: The role of church and temple. Nashville:
Abingdon Press.
CLINEBELL, H. 1979. Growth counseling: hope centered methods of actualizing human wholeness.
Nashville: Abingdon.
COSGROVE, M.P. & MALLORY, J.D. 1977. Mental health: a Christian approach. Grand Rapids,
Mich.: Zondervan.
CRAMER, R.L. 1959. The psychology of Jesus & mental health. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan.
CRAWFORD, M.E., HANDAL, P.J. & WIENER, R.L. 1989. The relationship between religion and
mental health/distress. Review of Religious Research. 31, 16-22.
DE JONGH VAN ARKEL, J.T. 1985.Gesinsmoord: 'n pastoraal-teologiese perspektief. South African
Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 9, 140-148.
DE JONGH VAN ARKEL, J.T. 1989. Spiritualiteit as semantiese struktuurkern: 'n Pastorale
perspektief, Practical Theology in South Africa. 4(2):18-30.
DE JONGH VAN ARKEL, J.T. 1990. Making religion work in the family. Unpublished paper read at the
conference of the South African Board for Mental health. Johannesburg.
DE JONGH VAN ARKEL, J.T. 1991. Die Kerk se pastorale verantwoordelikheid rondom
gesinsmoord, Practical Theology in South Africa, 6 (2):132-145.
DE JONGH VAN ARKEL, J.T. 1992. Gesinsmoorde – waar pas die kerk in? Koers. 57 (4), 455 – 469.
DE JONGH VAN ARKEL, J.T.& ROOS,J.L. 1992. Religious workers as support group in the
prevention of family murder, Geneeskunde, 34 (9): 14-21.
DENMARK, J. Deafness and Mental Health. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers
ELLENS, J.H. 1982. God's grace and human health. Nashville: Abingdon.
ELLISON, C.G., GAY, D.A. & GLASS, T.A. 1989. Does religious commitment contribute to individual
life satisfaction? Social Forces. 68, 100-123.
FELLINGER, J. 1995. Symptoms of stress among deaf people. Unpublished address to the XII world
congress, World Federation of the Deaf
FELLINGER, J., HOLZINGER, D., SCHOBERGER, R. & LENZ, G. 2005. Psychosoziale Merkmale bei
Gehörlosen: Daten aus einer Spezialambulanz für Gehörlose. Nervenarzt. 76: 43-51.
FELLINGER, J., HOLZINGER, D., DOBNER, U., GERICH, J., LENZ, G & GOLDBERG, D. Mental
distress and Quality of life in a deaf population. Unpublished article.
FELLINGER, J., HOLZINGER, D., GERICH, J., & GOLDBERG, D. Mental distress and Quality of life
in the hard of hearing. Unpublished article.
FERRARO, K. F. & ALBRECHT-JENSEN, C.M. 1991. Does religion influence adult health? Journal
for the Scientific Study of Religion. 30,193-202.
GERKIN, C.V. 1979. Crisis experience in modern life: theory and theology in pastoral care. Nashville:
Abingdon.
HEALTH AND WELL-BEING. 2003. 6th European Congress on Mental Health and Deafness, Bad
Ischl. CD. Schenkenfelden: Congress Office.
8
HEITINK, G. 1990. Geloof en geestesgesondheid, in Heitink, G. & Veenhof J. (Edit), Heil, heling,
gezondheid. ‚s-Gravenhage: Meinema.
HINDLEY, P. & KITSON, N. 2000. Mental Health and Deafness. London: Whurr Publishers.
HJORTSØ, T., VON DER LIETH, L. & CARLSEN, C. (Edit) 2001. Part I. Mental Health services for
Deaf People: A Woldwide perspective. Proceedings of the 5th European and 2nd World
Conference on Mental Health and Deafness.
HJORTSØ, T., VON DER LIETH, L. & CARLSEN, C. (Edit) 2001. Part II. Mental Health services for
Deaf People: A Woldwide perspective. Proceedings of the 5th European and 2nd World
Conference on Mental Health and Deafness.
IDLER, E.L. 1987. Religious involvement and the life of the elderly: some hypotheses and an initial
test. Social Forces. 66, 226-238.
LARSON, D.B., HOHMANN, A.A., KESSLER, L.G., MEADOR, K.G. BOYD, J.H. & McSHERRY, E.
1988. The couch and the cloth: the need for linkage. Hospital and community psychiatry. 39,
1064-1069.
LARTEY, E Y 1997. In living colour: An intercultural approach to pastoral care and counselling.
London: Cassell.
LINDERMAN; A: 1999. Deaf society: Issues of training and contextualization. Missiology: An
International Review. 27 (3), 363-375.
MENNIGER, K. 1966. Man against himself. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
OATES, W.E. 1970. When religion gets sick. Philadelphia: Westminster.
PEARSON, R.E. 1982. Support: exploring of a basic dimension of informal help and counseling. The
Personnel and Guidance Journal. 61, 83-87.
PETERSEN, L.R. & ROY, A. 1985. Religiosity, anxiety, and meaning and purpose: religion's
consequences for psychological well-being. Review of Religious Research. 27, 49-62.
SANUA, V.D. 1977. Religion. mental health and personality: a review of empirical studies, in Malony,
H.N., ed. Current perspectives in the psychology of religion. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans.
173-190.
SIMUNDSON, D.J. 1989. Mental health in the Bible. Word & World. 9, 140-146.
STRANGE; O (Edit.). 1992. Pastoral care and context. Amsterdam: VU University Press.
TJELTVEIT, A.C. 1989. Psychotherapeutic triumphalism and freedom from mental illness: diverse
concepts of mental health. Word & World. 9, 132-139.
VANGILDER; K:A: 1998. Deaf America’s encounter with Methodism: A brief look at a culture and a
church. Methodist History. 36 (4) 239- 249.
VEROFF J., KULKA R.A. & DOUVAN E. 1981. Mental health in America: Patterns of help-seeking
from 1957 to 1976. New York: Basic Books.
WINETT, R.A., MAJORS, J.S. & STEWART, G. 1979. Mental health treatment and referral practices
of clergy and physician caregivers. Journal of Community Psychology. 7, 318-323.
WALFISH, S. & WEINBERG, R.B. 1979. Social support systems for crisis intervention. Crisis
Intervention. 10, 122-142.
9