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Flight Procedures Manual
Professional Pilot
Technology
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FAA Acceptance
I have reviewed the contents of this manual and have found it to be
accepted.
Date Accepted:
REV Control Date:
Accepted
_______________________________________
_
Dave Green, Principle Operations Inspector
CRW FSDO-09
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14 Jan 09
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INSTRUCTIONS
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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
5
PRIVATE PILOT MANEUVERS
Positive Exchange of Flight Controls
Straight and Level Flight
Shallow and Medium Turns
Climbs
Climb to Straight and Level Transition
Descent
Descent to Straight and Level Transition
Climbing Turns
Descending Turns
Clearing Turns
Power-Off Stall
Power-On Stall
Accelerated Stall
Minimum Controllable Airspeed
Forced Landings
Ground Reference Maneuvers
Normal Takeoff
Traffic Pattern Rules
Description of the Traffic Pattern
Flying the Traffic Pattern
Full Flap Go-Around
Forward Slip and Side Slip
Crosswind Takeoff
Crosswind Landings
Short Field Takeoff Short Field Landing
Soft Field Takeoff Soft Field Landing
High Density Altitude Operation
6
6
7
7
7
8
8
8
9
9
9
11
12
12
13
18
19
20
20
21
25
25
26
26
27
28
29
COMMERCIAL PILOT MANEUVERS
Cessna 172RG Power Settings
32
Flow Check
GUMPSCC
Power-Off Stall, Landing Configuration
Power-On Stall
Minimum Controllable Airspeed
Emergency Descents
Full Flap Go-Around
Short Field Takeoff
Short Field Landing
32
33
33
34
35
36
37
37
38
Soft Field Takeoff
Soft Field Landing
Eights On Pylons
Steep Power Turns
Steep Spirals
Chandelles
Lazy Eights
38
39
39
40
40
41
42
SPIN AWARENESS
Spins
Spin Recovery
44
45
MULTI-ENGINE MANEUVERS
Flow Check
GUMPSCC
Steep Turns
Minimum Controllable Airspeed
Power-Off Stall, Clean Configuration
Power-Off Stall, Landing Configuration
Power-On Stall
Drag Demo
Vmc Demonstration
Emergency Descents
Full Flap Go-Around
Procedures For Engine Failure
47
47
47
47
48
49
51
50
51
52
52
53
AIRSPACE AND CROSS COUNTRY
PREPARATION
Controlled And Uncontrolled Airspace
58
Special Use Airspace
61
Other Airspace Areas
62
Miscellaneous
63
Sample Communications For Class C Airspace
64
Determining Pressure Altitude
65
Cross Country Preparation Checklist (and How to Obtain a Weather
Briefing)
66
Leaning
69
TABLES
V-Speeds, Weights, and Capacities
Attitude, Power, and Airspeed
70
71
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Introduction
The Fairmont State Flight Procedures Manual was written by the flight
instructors of Fairmont State and approved by the Chief Flight
Instructor, with additional procedure and enhancement of existing
procedure; sections on airspace; illustrations accompany selected
maneuvers; and tables of compiled information were created. The
language used in this edition is in accordance with recent changes in
the FAA Practical Test Standards. The student will find this manual of
great value.
Information contained herein is based on recent editions of the Federal
Aviation Regulations and Aeronautical Information Manual. Consult
the latest editions for current information. The Fairmont State Flight
Procedures Manual is intended to give detailed procedure for piloting
of Fairmont State aircraft. In all cases, it is not intended to supersede
information found in the manufacturers Pilot’s Operating Handbook
(for the type of aircraft), FAA Practical Test Standards, FAA Flight
Training Handbook, Federal Aviation Regulations, and Aeronautical
Information Manual. Information in these publications must be
followed.
Unless otherwise noted: Procedure, airspeeds, and power settings
in the Private Pilot Maneuvers section are for the Cessna 172;
procedure, airspeeds, and power settings in the Commercial Pilot
Maneuvers section are for the Cessna 172RG; procedure,
airspeeds, and power settings in the Multi-Engine Maneuvers
section are for the BE 76 Duchess.
Private Pilot Maneuvers
Positive Exchange of Flight Controls
• There should never be any doubt as to who is flying the aircraft.
• Exchange of flight controls between student and flight instructor will
follow a positive three-step process. For example, when the flight
instructor wishes the student to have control, the instructor says, “You
have the flight controls.” The student then says, “I have the flight
controls.” The instructor again says, “You have the flight controls”.
You may want to incorporate altitude and heading. For example, “You
have the controls, 3500’, heading 180”.
• Certain situations encountered during flight training may require the
flight instructor to take immediate action. When requested by the
instructor, students should relinquish control of the aircraft to the
instructor.
Straight and Level Flight
1. Clear for traffic! Develop a good VFR scan by giving most of your
attention outside of the cockpit. The VFR scan includes viewing 10
degree areas of sky for at least 1 second each.
2. Set the pitch attitude, using elevator pressure, which you believe will
prevent a change of altitude. Reference the distance between the
horizon and the top of the cowling through the front windshield.
3. The level pitch attitude can be verified when the altimeter remains
constant, and the VSI indicates zero.
4. Straight flight can be achieved by using aileron pressure, as
necessary, to maintain wings level.
5. Wings level can be verified by achieving equal distance between the
horizon and each wingtip.
6. Only after the pitch and power are set should the final trim
adjustment be made.
7. While in straight and level flight, scan the wingtips and nose to
maintain this attitude. This scan complements the pilot’s scan for other
aircraft.
Shallow and Medium Turns
1. Clear for traffic! In high wing aircraft clear area in direction of turn
by momentarily raising wing and looking.
2. Simultaneously apply aileron and rudder pressure in direction of
turn.
3. Use back pressure as necessary to maintain level pitch.
4. Neutralize controls when desired bank angle is achieved.
5. Use aileron pressure as necessary to maintain desired bank angle.
6. Look at angle between horizon and nose cowling to detect any bank
angle changes.
7. Start roll-out when heading is 1/2 of the bank angle from the desired
heading, e.g., start roll-out 15 degrees before desired heading when in a
30 degree bank turn.
8. Roll out by simultaneously applying aileron and rudder pressure in
the direction opposite the turn.
9. Release back pressure to maintain level pitch attitude throughout the
roll-out.
Climbs
• P.A.T. rule -- Power, Attitude, Trim:
1. Clear for traffic in all directions! Area ahead of aircraft may be
cleared by periodically lowering nose momentarily or by performing
shallow turns 30 degrees either side of intended heading.
2. Increase power to full throttle (climb power).
3. Increase pitch to desired climb attitude, then trim. Three climb
attitudes and their “sight pictures”:
• Vx
(Corners of cowling are slightly above horizon).
• Vy
(Corners of cowling are even with horizon).
• Cruise Climb
(Cowling is tangent to horizon).
4. Use right rudder as necessary to correct for left turning tendencies.
5. Trim.
Climb to Straight and Level Transition
• Lead level-off by 10% of VSI.
• Pitch, Power, Trim:
1. Lower pitch to level pitch attitude.
2. After airspeed builds to desired speed, reduce power to desired
setting.
3. Release right rudder pressure as necessary to compensate for yaw.
4. Trim.
Descent
• P.A.T. rule -- Power, Attitude, Trim:
1.Clear for traffic in all directions!
2. Reduce power.
3. Establish pitch for descent attitude.
4. Trim.
5. Descents should be practiced at various airspeeds and rates of
descent. Power setting and pitch attitude will depend on desired
airspeed and rate of descent.
• Terminal Descent:
85 KIAS, 1700 rpm, 500 fpm.
• Cruise Airspeed Descent:
95 KIAS, 2000 rpm, 500 fpm.
• Cruise Power Descent: 105 KIAS, 2300 rpm, 500 fpm.
• Descents in gliding flight should be practiced at the best glide speed
for the type aircraft.
Descent to Straight and Level Transition
• Lead level-off by 10% of VSI.
• P.A.T. rule -- Power, Attitude, Trim:
1. Increase power to normal cruise setting.
2. Simultaneously increase pitch to level pitch attitude.
3. Adjust rudder pressure as necessary to compensate for yaw.
4. Trim.
Climbing Turns
• With a constant power setting, the same pitch attitude and airspeed
cannot be maintained in a climbing turn as it can in a straight climb.
This is due to the decrease in effective lift and speed during a turn.
Left climbing turn from a straight climb:
1. Apply left aileron and decrease right rudder as necessary as the turn
is established.
2. Once the turn is established, neutralize aileron and hold right rudder
pressure as necessary.
3. In order to achieve coordinated roll-out, apply right aileron and more
right rudder pressure as necessary.
Right climbing turn from a straight climb:
1. Apply right aileron and increase right rudder as necessary as the turn
is established.
2. Once the turn is established, neutralize aileron and hold right rudder
pressure as necessary.
3. In order to achieve coordinated roll-out, apply left aileron and
decrease right rudder pressure as necessary.
Descending Turns
• Procedures are the same as for straight and level turns.
Clearing Turns
• Clearing turns are to be performed prior to certain maneuvers as
specified. Clearing turns consist of a minimum of 180° of turn. The
clearing turn can be a single 180° turn or two 90° turns using 20 or 30
degrees angle of bank. Maneuvers involving turns are to be performed
with the turn in the same direction as in the last 90° of clearing turn.
Power-Off Stall
• Unintentional power-off stalls usually occur in the landing pattern
when the aircraft is slow and at a reduced power setting. Poor piloting
or a distraction that takes the pilot’s attention away from controlling the
aircraft often precedes the stall. While in the landing pattern, sufficient
altitude for stall recovery may not exist. Stall recognition and recovery
are so important that a great deal of training involves stalling the
aircraft at a safe altitude. The pilot’s response to stall onset should be
second nature so that a recovery is initiated before the aircraft actually
stalls. A stall can also result in a spin.
• Stalls may be performed in both flaps up and flaps down
configurations.
• Stalls may be performed imminent or full.
• Perform and recover from this maneuver at an altitude no lower than
2500 AGL.
Straight ahead, flaps up configuration:
1. Clearing turns.
2. Carburetor heat on.
3. Smoothly reduce power to idle.
4. Increase pitch - assume stall attitude (about 10 degrees pitch). As
aircraft slows, maintain wings level coordinated flight.
Straight ahead, flaps down configuration:
1. Clearing turns.
2. Carburetor heat on.
3. Reduce power to 1500 rpm. When in flap operating range, lower
flaps incrementally to normal approach configuration (full flaps).
4. Smoothly reduce power to idle.
5. Increase pitch - assume stall attitude (about 10 degrees pitch). As
aircraft slows, maintain wings level coordinated flight.
Turning stall, flaps down configuration:
1. Clearing turns.
2. Carburetor heat on.
3. Reduce power to 1500 rpm. When in flap operating range, lower
flaps incrementally to normal approach configuration (full flaps).
4. Roll into 30° angle of bank turn.
5. Smoothly reduce power to idle.
6. Increase pitch - assume stall attitude (about 10 degrees pitch). As
aircraft slows, maintain 30° angle of bank coordinated flight.
Recovery:
1. Decrease pitch attitude.
2. Level wings - initially with rudder, then when stall is broken with
coordinated rudder and aileron.
3. Apply full power.
4. Carburetor heat off.
5. Retract flaps to 20° (if lowered).
6. Apply right rudder to maintain coordinated flight.
7. Climb-out at Vx until obstacles (simulated) are cleared then climbout at Vy.
8. Retract remaining flaps in 10° increments.
Power-On Stall
Unintentional power-on stalls usually occur during a climb out after
takeoff. Poor piloting or a distraction that takes the pilot’s attention
away from controlling the aircraft often precedes the stall. Sufficient
altitude for stall recovery may not exist. Stall recognition and recovery
are so important that a great deal of training involves stalling the
aircraft at a safe altitude. The pilot’s response to stall onset should be
second nature so that a recovery is initiated before the aircraft actually
stalls. A stall can also result in a spin.
• Stalls may be performed in both flaps up and flaps down
configurations.
• Stalls may be performed imminent or full.
• Perform and recover from this maneuver at an altitude no lower than
2500 AGL.
Straight ahead, flaps up configuration:
1. Clearing turns.
2. Carburetor heat on.
3. Reduce power to 1500 rpm.
4. Pitch to maintain altitude and slow aircraft to Vr.
5. Apply takeoff (full) power.
6. Carb heat off.
7. Increase pitch - assume stall attitude (about 20 degrees pitch). As
aircraft slows, maintain wings level. Apply right rudder to maintain
coordinated flight.
Turning stall flaps up configuration:
1. Clearing turns.
2. Carburetor heat on.
3. Reduce power to 1500 rpm.
4. Pitch to maintain altitude and slow aircraft to Vr.
5. Apply takeoff (full) power.
6. Roll into 20° angle of bank turn.
7, Increase pitch - assume stall attitude (about 20 degrees pitch). As
aircraft slows, maintain 20° angle of bank. Apply right rudder to
maintain coordinated flight
Recovery:
• Procedures are the same as for power-off stall recovery, as applicable.
Accelerated Stall
• This is a demonstrated maneuver and will not be tested.
• Accelerated stalls are performed in flaps up configuration only.
• Stalls may be performed imminent or full.
• Perform and recover from this maneuver at an altitude no lower than
1500 AGL.
1. Clearing turns.
2. Carburetor heat on.
3. Reduce power to 1900 rpm.
4. Pitch to maintain altitude and slow aircraft to 80 KIAS (well below
Vy).
5. Upon reaching 80 KIAS establish a 45 degree bank and apply firm
steady back pressure until the stall occurs. If the stall does not occur
within 180 degrees of heading change, a more positive application of
back pressure should be made.
Recovery:
• Procedures are the same as for power-off stall recovery, as applicable.
Minimum Controllable Airspeed
• Minimum controllable airspeed is that airspeed at which an increase
in angle of attack or load factor will result in an immediate stall. This
critical airspeed is contingent on various circumstances, such as gross
weight of the aircraft; maneuvering loads imposed by turns and pullups; and the existing density altitude. Students will be evaluated on
ability to establish MCA, positively control the aircraft, and recognize
incipient stalls.
• MCA will be performed and recovered at an altitude no lower than
1500 AGL.
1. Clearing turns.
2. Carburetor heat on.
3. Reduce power to 1500.
4. Allow airspeed to slow into the flap operating range (white arc on
the airspeed indicator), then lower flaps one notch at a time. Airspeed
will continue to slow as flaps are extended. Pitch as necessary
(initially) to maintain altitude.
At airspeeds lower than 60 KIAS, add power as necessary to maintain
altitude, flight is now in the “region of reverse command,” also known
as the “back side of the power curve.”
5. As airspeed approaches bottom of white arc, increase power as
necessary (approximately 2000 rpm) to maintain altitude at this
airspeed.
• Pitch controls airspeed.
• Power controls altitude.
6. MCA should be practiced in various configurations while in
coordinated straight and turning flight, and in coordinated climbs and
descents.
Recovery:
1. Apply full power.
2. Carburetor heat off.
3. Retract flaps to 20°.
4. Slowly lower nose to level cruise attitude. As airspeed increases,
retract remaining flaps one notch at a time so that the flaps are
completely retracted prior to reaching VFE.
5. As cruise speed is attained, reduce power to cruise and re-trim.
Forced Landings
• If sufficient altitude is available, refer to the aircraft’s Engine Failure
and Forced Landing Checklists. If insufficient altitude is available, use
a mental checklist (Flow).
• During simulated forced landings, do not descend below 500 AGL.
• The engine should be cleared approximately every thirty
seconds by increasing power to 1500 rpm, than retarding it back to idle.
In extremely cold weather use partial power so as to not shock-cool
engine.
In -flight engine failure:
• Recall of emergency procedure may prove difficult during an actual
engine failure. A flow check will facilitate recall and thorough
completion of checklist items. Air start and secure engine flow checks
are in the form of a question mark. Begin at the bottom of the question
mark with the fuel shutoff valve and work your way across the panel
from right to left. Verbalize and touch each item in the checklist.
During engine failure simulation, verbalize and touch but do not carry
out secure engine, communicate, and when field is made procedure.
• Aviate, navigate, and communicate:
1. Transition to best glide (60 KIAS), trim, and carburetor heat on.
2. Select landing field (see selecting the field below).
3. Airstart engine - Use “T’ checklist:
• Fuel Shutoff Valve ON.
• Flaps UP.
• Mixture RICH.
• Throttle IDLE.
• Carburetor Heat ON.
• Check engine instruments:
Tachometer.
Oil Pressure.
Oil Temperature.
Fuel Gauges.
• Primer IN & LOCKED.
• Master Switch ON.
• Ignition Switch BOTH or START if propeller is stopped.
• Seat belts SECURE.
Time permitting: Use paper checklist to attempt additional
Airstarts and complete remaining procedure.
4. Secure engine if no airstart - Use checklist:
• Fuel Shutoff Valve OFF.
• Mixture IDLE CUT-OFF.
• Ignition Switch OFF.
5. Communicate:
• Tune 121.5 MHz and squawk 7700.
• Who you are.
• Where you are.
• What your intentions are.
• Any information useful to rescue efforts.
Example: “Mayday, Mayday, Mayday. Cessna 12345 is 10 miles west
of Clarksburg airport at 3000 feet with an engine failure. I am landing
into a farmers field below me. The color of my aircraft is blue on white,
Number of persons on board is two.’
6. When field is made:
• Lower flaps.
• Master off.
• Door ajar.
7. After Touchdown:
• If landing was successful and you wish to be rescued,
manually switch the ELT to on.
• If the landing results in wreckage, get away from the aircraft
since leaking fuel may cause a fire.
Determining wind direction:
• Try to land into the wind if possible. If unable to land into the wind,
then land crosswind. Avoid landing downwind, except as a last resort.
Avoid excessive maneuvering!
• Look for drifting smoke. Wind strength can also be determined by
the degree rising smoke is offset from the vertical.
• Look at waves on a pond or lake. The side of the water that appears
to be without waves is the side that the wind is from -- for example, no
waves on the north side of the lake means that the wind is from the
North. The bank on the windward side keeps the water undisturbed.
• In the absence of the above, assume the wind is the same as at the
airport, or as reported in your pre-flight weather briefing.
Selecting the field:
• An actual runway is best. Glide ratio for the Cessna 172 is about
10:1. If altitude permits, fly to a nearby airport. If an actual runway
cannot be located, an off-airport location must be chosen. At lower
altitudes it is best to use a nearby field and circle over the approach
end. Possible sites and their suitability are listed in order of preference:
1. Light tan stubble field with minimal texture - Harvested but not
plowed.
2. Green field with minimal texture - Contain short vegetation.
3. Plowed field - Probably soft depending on how long ago it was
plowed. When the soil becomes wet, it turns dark brown or black, and
may appear glossy. These are usually plowed fields, and are full of
clods and/or are very soft. A soft field could cause the aircraft to flip.
4. Sand - Straight run at water’s edge should be good. Avoid
irregular shaped beaches.
5. Field with tall vegetation - Fields with a texture to them or which
have movement in the wind usually contain tall growth. These may be
cornfields or tall grass that might obscure ditches. May cause aircraft to
flip, will cause extensive damage to aircraft.
6. Road - Rural roads do not contain much vehicular traffic, but
there is a possibility of collision with traffic. Roads also have power
lines which may be a collision hazard.
Night forced landings
• Plan the trip for a higher altitude. Be aware of your exact position
and locate airports along your route of flight. Should an engine fail,
gliding to an airport is now a possibility. If a forced landing is
necessary at night, and you are unable to determine the type of terrain
you are over, maintain a cardinal heading into the known wind.
• If a highway is visible, land on it. If a road is used, avoid
intersections and lights since power lines may cross the road at these
points. Avoid dark spots -- there are not often lights placed in the
middle of lakes and forests.
• Slow the aircraft down, use full flaps, and touch down at the
minimum safe speed.
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Ground Reference Maneuvers
• The objective of all ground reference maneuvers is learning
orientation; planning; and the division of attention between flight path,
ground objects and control of the airplane, in addition to flying a
specified track over the ground while maintaining altitude.
• Clearing turns should be performed before practicing a ground
reference maneuver.
• For ground reference maneuvers, use 800 AGL, enter downwind,
and choose a location away from towns, buildings, and antennas.
Rectangular course:
• The objective of the rectangular course is to learn drift recognition.
This skill can be applied to the landing traffic pattern. The track chosen
for this course should be either rectangular or square, with the sides
about one mile in length. The altitude should be approximately 600 1000 feet AGL, which is the same as the traffic pattern altitude. The
banks used should not exceed 45 degrees angle of bank. The ground
path should be 1/2 mile outside the chosen boundaries, so that it may be
easily seen while looking out the window.
• The maneuver should be entered downwind (with a tailwind). Once
the proper position has been determined, the plane should be flown
parallel to one side of the rectangle until the corner is reached.
• The turn should be planned so that a ground track parallel to, and the
same distance from the next side of the rectangle will be maintained
upon recovery. The direction of the flight path should be established
with the proper amount of crab angle. A tailwind will require a steeper
bank, and a headwind will decrease the amount of bank angle required.
Because of the crab, each turn will be either more or less than 90
degrees.
Turns about a point:

The objective of turns about a point is to maneuver the aircraft
safely by reference to objects on the ground, and correct for wind drift
by varying bank. During the maneuver around a designated point, a
circular flight path should be tracked, while maintaining a constant
radius. The maneuver should be entered on a downwind heading at
cruise power. Altitude should remain constant at approximately 800
feet AGL.

A tailwind will require a steeper bank, and a headwind will
require a shallower bank. At no time during the maneuver will the
wings of the aircraft be level. Bank will vary according to the ground
speed of the aircraft and should not exceed 45 degrees angle of bank.
The radius of the turn should be 1/4 - 1/2 mile.
S-Turns:
• The objective of S-turns is to fly a pattern of two perfect half circles
of equal size on opposite sides of a road. The road should be
perpendicular to the wind direction and a constant altitude should be
maintained throughout the maneuver. An altitude of 600 - 1000 feet
AGL should be used. Start on a downwind heading at cruise power.
• Because this is a modified turn about a point, a point should be
chosen for each 180 degree turn. The apex of each turn should be 1/2
mile from the road. Once the turn is completed, the aircraft should be
180 degrees from the starting point with wings rolling level as the
aircraft is crossing the road. The roll is immediately continued into the
opposite direction. Again, with a tailwind the bank angle will be
steeper, and with a headwind the bank angle will be shallower. The
bank will either steeper or shallow throughout each 180 degrees of turn.
Normal Takeoff
1. After completing the pre-takeoff checklist, and checking the area for
other traffic, the aircraft should be taxied and aligned with the runway
centerline. The nose wheel should be straight.
2. During the normal takeoff, make sure heels are on the floor and feet
are positioned on the rudder pedals clear of the toe brakes.
3. Full throttle should be smoothly applied while maintaining the
centerline of the runway throughout the takeoff roll.
4. During the takeoff roll, apply gradual back pressure when attaining
the manufacturers recommended liftoff speed (55 Kias).
5. Once airborne, establish the pitch attitude that will best maintain an
acceleration to best rate of climb (Vy). See Climbs for a description of
the “sight picture” associated with different attitudes.
6. During the climb, correct for left turning tendencies with right
rudder. Apply proper drift correction to maintain a straight ground track
along the runway’s extended centerline.
Traffic Pattern Rules
• No turn shall be made after takeoff until the aircraft has cleared the
departure end of the runway, and has reached a minimum altitude of
500 AGL, and has verified that there will be no danger of collision with
other traffic.
• If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or exit with a 45
degree left turn beyond the departure end of the runway, after reaching
traffic pattern altitude.
• The direction of departure is coordinated with the control tower. All
turns at uncontrolled airports are made to the left, unless otherwise
noted in the A/FD.
• Enter the traffic pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the
runway, at pattern altitude. Pattern altitude traditionally is 1000 feet
AGL, unless otherwise noted in the A/FD.
• The Before Landing Checklist should be performed using the handheld paper checklist before the 45 degree entry to the downwind leg.
Entering the pattern, the pilot should keep his eyes outside of the
cockpit to look for traffic. Therefore, additional repetitions of the
Before Landing Checklist are done from memory. The Before Landing
Checklist should be performed a second time from memory when
established downwind, and a third time from memory on final for
aircraft with retractable landing gear.
Description of the Traffic Pattern
• The size of the traffic pattern will vary directly with the amount of
traffic. All FSU students will adhere to the Fairmont State Flight
Training Handbook, and to the published rules in the current FAR and
AIM when conducting traffic pattern operations.
• The upwind leg will be continued until the aircraft has cleared the
departure end of the runway, and has reached an altitude of 500 feet
AGL. A turn to crosswind may then be made, after determining that the
turn can be made safely. Since the turn to crosswind is based on an
altitude, the actual position over the ground will vary due to a number
of factors including wind, density altitude, and aircraft weight. Also
affecting pattern size is traffic density. A large number of aircraft in the
pattern usually results in having to extend downwind, although
extending upwind is preferred. In the event of an engine failure upwind,
a runway landing would be ensured.
• The aircraft will continue to climb to pattern altitude or turn a 1/2
mile downwind, whichever occurs first.
• The base leg will begin when the aircraft is 45 degree from the
touchdown point and it has been determined that the turn can be made
safely. An aircraft ahead of you on the base leg should be past your
wingtip before you make a turn to base.
• A turn to final will be made only after determining that the area is
clear, and that the runway is suitable for landing.
Flying the Traffic Pattern
See illustration of the traffic pattern.
On downwind:
1. The downwind leg is flown at an altitude of 1000 feet AGL, 1/2 mile
from the runway, and at a low cruise power setting of approximately
2000 rpm resulting in 80 KIAS.
2. The Before Landing Checklist (GUMPS) will be performed from
memory when established downwind. In a Cessna 172, the checklist is:
Seat belts - Secure, Mixture - Rich, and Carburetor Heat - On. These
items must again be checked for each orbit of closed traffic.
Abeam the intended point of landing:
1. Throttle setting will be reduced to approximately 1500 - 1700 rpm.
2. Check that airspeed is in the flap operating range and lower the first
notch of flaps (10 degrees).
3. Trim up and reduce speed to 80 KIAS by holding the level
downwind pitch attitude.
4. Establish a 80 KIAS descent (approximately 300-500 fpm).
Base leg:
1. Power as needed.
2. Lower second notch of flaps (20 degrees total flaps).
3. Pitch for 70 KIAS.
4. Maintain a descent that results in completing the turn to final on the
runway extended centerline and on the proper glide path. The “key
position” is 500’ AGL half-way on base while flying a 1/2 mile pattern.
Adjusting power to reach the key position altitude will result in the
desired position on final.
Final approach:
1. A throttle setting will be used that will maintain a proper descent to
the runway threshold.
2. Lower third notch of flaps (30 degrees total flaps).
3. Pitch for 65 KIAS with flaps down, 70 KIAS with flaps up.
• Proper airspeed control is a key to a good landing. Once the airspeed
is “locked-on” through pitch adjustment, glide path is controlled by
adjusting the throttle. If the aim point appears to move closer, the
aircraft is above glide path and the power must be reduced. If the aim
point appears to move away from the aircraft, the aircraft is below glide
path and power must be added. Once on glide path, power is readjusted
to maintain the glide path.
• Note: Flap settings will be determined by the glide path necessary for
approach and wind velocity and direction. The normal setting for flaps
is 30 degrees. Less than this should be used in strong crosswinds or
gusty wind conditions. Under gusty wind conditions add half the gust
factor to the final approach speed.
The level-off and flare:
1. Visual cues and rate of descent determine when to begin the leveloff.
2. Gently apply back pressure to the control wheel to begin a level-off.
Focus is shifted from the aim point to a point
down the runway.
3. As aircraft begins to settle, slowly flare by transitioning to a nose-up
attitude. This attitude will slow the aircraft enough to reach proper
touchdown speed. Rate of closure with the runway determines rate of
flare. Power is gradually reduced to idle. As the aircraft slows, focus is
brought closer. The proper landing attitude is achieved through proper
scanning of visual references both ahead, and within the peripheral
(side to side) range of the pilot. Once the flare is established, the
runway end disappears below the nose of the aircraft, and the runway
begins to be visible on the sides of the aircraft nose. This landing
attitude is maintained, or “held off’ until the main wheels gently touch
down. Continue to hold back pressure as the nose wheel lowers to the
ground. Once wheels are on the ground, use the rudder pedals to steer
along runway centerline. Allow aircraft to decelerate before applying
brakes. Note that the actual touchdown point is beyond the original aim
point.
4. Except for a touch-and-go, do not retract flaps while on the runway.
Taxi entire aircraft past the hold short line, come to a complete stop,
and complete the After Landing Checklist.
Cessna 172 Traffic Pattern
Full Flap Go-Around
• The student will be required to demonstrate proficiency in initiating a
full flap go-around from a height of five feet above the runway. Full
flap go-arounds are to be taught using the following sequence:
1. Full throttle.
2. Carburetor heat - Off. Pitch for a climb attitude. See Climbs for a
description of the “sight picture” associated with different attitudes.
3. Flaps are refracted to 20 degrees.
4. Climb at Vx until any obstacles are cleared. If no obstacles exist,
climb at Vy.
5. When obstacles are cleared, accelerate to Vx. and retract remaining
flaps in 10 degree increments.
6. Sidestep clear of downwind so that runway below is visible. For
example, sidestep to right for left hand traffic pattern.
The Forward Slip and the Side Slip
• The purpose of a slip is to dissipate altitude without increasing the
aircraft’s speed, particularly in aircraft not equipped with flaps. A slip
is especially useful prior to touchdown during an engine failure.
• A forward slip is one during which the longitudinal axis is at an angle
to ground path and runway, but in which the flight path is parallel and
coincides with the ground path.
• A side slip, as distinguished from a forward slip, is one during which
the longitudinal axis remains approximately parallel to the original
flight path and runway, but in which the flight path changes in direction
according to the steepness of the bank assumed. The side slip is
important to the performance of crosswind landings.
• The slip will result in a high sink rate which should be taken-out in
sufficient time prior to landing.
• Note: Slips may induce airspeed indicator error.
• Note: Some aircraft should not be slipped with flaps extended —
check the POH.
1. Power to idle.
2. “Wing down, top rudder”: Smoothly bank into wind and apply
opposite (or top) rudder. Using the wrong rudder will result in a skid.
The order of aileron and rudder application is dependent on whether a
forward slip or side slip is desired. For maximum effect, rudder is
placed full forward.
3. When aircraft is on desired glide path smoothly release rudder and
return ailerons to wings level.
Crosswind Takeoff
• Check Pilot’s Operating Handbook or Airplane Flight Manual for
maximum demonstrated crosswind component. Determine crosswind
component from Wind Components chart.
1. Align the airplane with the center of the runway and ailerons turned
fully towards the wind. Center nose wheel. Smoothly apply full
throttle.
2. As the aircraft accelerates, ailerons should be gradually turned back
toward the neutral position. As the aircraft reaches 5 to 10 knots above
normal lift-off speed for the aircraft type, positevly pull-off the runway
to prevent settling while drifting. Ailerons should reach a nearly neutral
position at this time, but will be deflected proportionately to the amount
of crosswind, so as to not drift after lift-off.
3. The plane will start to bank into the wind after it leaves the ground.
Allow the airplane to make this coordinated turn into the wind, setting
the proper drift correction angle. During this time, the aircraft is
accelerating to Vy. Maintain sufficient drift correction to remain on the
extended centerline of the runway.
Crosswind Landings
• Check Pilot’s Operating Handbook or Airplane Flight Manual for
maximum demonstrated crosswind component. Determine crosswind
component from Wind Components chart.
• Crosswind technique is required whenever the wind is not directly
down the runway; even a 10 degree crosswind at 5 knots requires
crosswind techniques.
1. The crosswind landing begins on final. The sideslip will be
employed to counteract wind drift. When lined up with the centerline of
the runway, bank the aircraft into the wind at an angle proportional to
the crosswind component to correct for drift. Apply rudder in the
opposite direction from the bank to yaw the aircraft so that its
longitudinal axis is parallel to the runway centerline.
2. If the aircraft drifts into the wind, reduce the amount of bank,
making sure the longitudinal axis is kept parallel to the centerline with
the rudder. Never use bank away from the wind to correct back to the
centerline.
3. If the aircraft drifts away from the wind, increase the bank into the
wind, keeping the longitudinal axis parallel to the centerline with the
rudder.
4. The amount of crosswind correction must increase throughout the
flare due to the slowing speed of the aircraft. Touchdown will occur on
the main wheel of the upwind (low) wing first, then the other main
wheel, and then the nose wheel. More power may be necessary on the
approach due to an increased sink rate resulting from the side slip.
Wind shear and variable wind directions or velocities may change the
amount of correction necessary while descending from higher to lower
altitudes on final.
• Note: Flap settings will be determined by the glide path necessary for
approach and wind velocity and direction. The normal setting for flaps
is 30 degrees. Less than this should be used in strong crosswinds or
gusty wind conditions. Under gusty wind conditions add half the gust
factor to the final approach speed.
• Note: Full rudder deflection may be required in a very strong
crosswind. If full rudder deflection does not align the aircraft’s
longitudinal axis with the runway — do not land! Find an airport
with a runway which favors the wind.
• Note: The side-slip resulting from a crosswind landing may
induce airspeed indicator error.
Short Field Takeoff
• Use for short runways, up sloping runways, obstructions at the
departure end of the runway, and high density altitude conditions.
• Essentially, the aircraft is flown at Vx until the obstacle is cleared and
then flown at Vy. In most cases the manufacturer provides a more
specific procedure.
1. At hold-short line, review Short Field Takeoff checklist and set flaps
10 degrees (or 0 degrees depending on type -- refer to POH).
2. Position the airplane for maximum utilization of available takeoff
area.
3. Align the aircraft with the runway centerline, making sure the nose
wheel is straight.
4. Hold brakes and apply FULL throttle - check oil pressure and
tachometer for normal indications and that full power is being
developed.
5. Release brakes and accelerate to rotation speed of 55 KIAS.
6. Climb out at 56 KIAS until obstructions are cleared (or 50 feet AGL
for simulation).
7. Lower pitch slightly to Vy attitude and accelerate to 70 KIAS.
8. Retract flaps and allow aircraft to accelerate to Vy.
Short Field Landing
• Use for short runway, down sloping runway, obstruction at the
approach end of the runway.
1. Full flaps if possible, flaps as practical (crosswind/gusty wind
conditions) otherwise.
2. Slow to 60 KIAS with a stable power-on approach. In gusty wind
conditions, add1/2 the gust factor, e.g., 5 KIAS for every 10 knots of
gust.
3. Main wheels touch down first.
4. Once nose wheel is on the ground, apply brakes heavily (as
necessary) and aerodynamic braking using elevator to stop on available
runway. As aircraft slows, brakes may be applied more firmly due to
increased friction with the surface.
5. Retract flaps and apply full back pressure to increase braking
effectiveness.
6. Taxi entire aircraft past the hold short line, come to a complete stop,
and complete the After Landing checklist.
Soft Field Takeoff
• Soft field takeoff objective is to transfer weight from the wheels to the
wings as soon as possible. This eliminates rolling friction from the soft
field and allows aircraft to accelerate to the proper climb out speed.
• Complete run up prior to taxing onto soft field.
1. Flaps set - 10 degrees.
2. Apply full back elevator while taxiing onto the soft field and apply
full power without stopping the aircraft.
3. Pitch as necessary to keep the nose wheel off the ground.
4. As main wheels lift off the ground, release back pressure and ease
the nose over so as to fly level in ground effect (1/2 wing span).
5. If there is an obstacle to clear, accelerate to Vx before climbing out
of ground effect. Climb out at Vx until obstacles are cleared (or 50 feet
AGL for simulation). Remaining procedure is the same as a short field
takeoff.
6. If there is no obstacle to clear, accelerate to Vy before climbing out
of ground effect.
7. Retract flaps.
• Note: Under no circumstances should aircraft be allowed to come out
of ground effect before reaching Vx.
Soft Field Landing
1. Full flaps if possible, flaps as practical (crosswind/gusty wind
conditions) otherwise.
2. Slow to 65 KIAS with a stable power-on approach. In gusty wind
conditions, add 1/2 the gust factor, e.g., 5 KJAS for every 10 knots of
gust.
3. During flare, increase power by 200 rpm and touch down at slowest
possible airspeed. Land on main wheels first and continue to hold back
pressure to slowly transfer weight from wings to wheels. Keep the
nosewheel off the ground during the roll-out. DO NOT apply brakes.
4. Taxi clear of the soft field without stopping. Use full back yoke so as
to keep weight off the nose wheel.
‘POH specifies to retract flaps, FAA Flight Training Handbook
specifies leaving flaps down
High Density Altitude Operation: Takeoffs, Go-A rounds and
Landings
• When simulating the effects of high density altitude operations, limit
takeoff power to 50% BHP.
• At a density altitude of 9000 feet, available engine power is around
65%. The airfoils still act as if they are at a lower density altitude
during a simulation, so we reduce the power to 50% to compensate for
this effect.
• Recommended power settings:
Cessna 172
Cessna 172RG
2100 rpm (48-52%)
Props forward, 21” mp (52-56%)
Takeoff
• Mixture may be leaned for maximum rpm for actual high altitude
takeoffs. Leave mixture full rich for simulation.
• Power should be set by the instructor. Lift-off should not occur before
Vx. Vx should be maintained in a coordinated climb-out for maximum
performance.
Note: Climbing at lower power settings does not have the advantage of
automatic enrichment at full throttle for engine cooling. Increase to full
throttle once the simulation is complete.
Go-Arounds:
• A go-around from the short field landing configuration (full flaps)
should be demonstrated with the instructor limiting maximum engine
power to the recommended setting. Normal go-around procedures
should be applied.
Landings:
• As the glide path is a function of lift over drag, it will remain the
same regardless of density altitudes, though true airspeed and sink rate
will be higher. The flare will cover a longer distance, there will be less
ground effect, and the rate of flare will increase. The airplane will
touch down at a higher ground speed due to the higher true airspeed. To
simulate a high density altitude landing, the approach should be made
without flaps, and power should be increased to 1200 rpm upon
touchdown to simulate the higher rollout speed.
Intentionally Left Blank
Commercial Pilot Maneuvers
Cessna 172RG Power Settings
Power-On Stalls
21”/2500 rpm.
Power-Off Stalls
Idle”/2500 rpm.
MCA
18”/2400 rpm. Cowl flaps open
.
Chandelles
Power starts at 18”, is increased to
Full”/2700 rpm when power is to be added. Cowl flaps open.
Lazy Eights
l8”/2300 rpm. Cowl flaps closed.
Eights on Pylons 21”/2300 rpm. Cowl flaps closed.
Spirals/Engine-Out
Idle (gear up). Cowl flaps closed.
During winter months, idle descents should use at least 13”, otherwise
engine may shock-cool.
Flow Check
• A flow check will facilitate recall and thorough completion of
checklist items. Flow checks for the following maneuvers can be in the
form of GUMPSCC or in the form of a question mark. Begin at the
bottom of the question mark with the fuel selector valve and work your
way across the panel from right to left.
• Begin and end each maneuver with a flow check.
1. Fuel selector.
2. Cowl Flap.
3. Flaps.
4. Mixture.
5. Prop.
6. Throttle.
7. Carburetor Heat.
8. Undercarriage (if gear was lowered, verify and call out
“Green and a wheel”).
9. Fuel pump.
10. Seatbelts and Shoulder Harnesses.
GUMPSCC
• The Before Landing Checklist should be performed using the handheld paper checklist before the 45 degree entry to the downwind leg.
GUMPSCC is a mnemonic Before Landing Checklist which can be
used in the landing pattern. Perform GUMPSCC on downwind and
again on base or final.
• When lowering landing gear, do not remove hand from gear handle
until there is a green indication.
• Other mnemonic items may be added to GUMPSCC such as the
landing light.
Gas (Fuel selector).
Undercarriage (if gear was lowered, verify and call
out “Green and a wheel”).
Mixtures.
Props.
Seatbelts and Shoulder Harnesses.
Carburetor Heat.
Cowl Flaps.
Power-Off Stall, Landing Configuration
1. Clearing turns: First 90 degrees of turn - Carburetor heat on. Second
90 degrees of turn - Throttle 15”.
2. Flow Check:
• Fuel selector on both.
• Cowl Flaps as needed.
• Flaps up.
• Mixture rich.
• Prop full forward when below 100 KIAS.
• Throttle 15”.
• Carburetor heat recheck on.
• Undercarriage - Check airspeed below Vlo (140 KIAS) and
extend landing gear.
• Seatbelts and Shoulder Harnesses - Secure.
3. When in flap operating range, lower flaps incrementally to normal
approach configuration (full flaps).
4. Slow to approach speed (70 KIAS).
5. Smoothly reduce power to idle.
6. Increase pitch - assume stall attitude (about 10 degrees pitch). As
aircraft slows, maintain wings level coordinated flight.
7. Recognize and announce onset of stall.
8. Promptly recover as the stall occurs.
Recovery:
• For power-off stall, recover with minimum loss of altitude and return
to the altitude, heading, and airspeed specified by the instructor.
• For power-on stall, recover with minimum loss of altitude and return
to the altitude, heading, and airspeed specified by the instructor.
• Perform the following as applicable and as the situation may require:
1. Decrease pitch attitude.
2. Level wings - initially with rudder, then when stall is broken with
coordinated rudder and aileron.
3. Apply full power.
4. Carburetor heat off.
5. Retract flaps to 20° (if lowered).
6. Retract Gear
7. Apply right rudder to maintain coordinated flight.
8. Climb-out at Vx until obstacles (simulated) are cleared then climbout at Vy.
9. After a positive rate of climb indication remaining flaps in 10 degree
increments.
Power-On Stall
1. Clearing turns: First 90 degrees of turn - Carburetor heat on. Second
90 degrees of turn - Throttle 15”.
2. Flow check:
• Fuel selector on both.
• Cowl Flaps as needed.
• Flaps up.
• Mixture rich.
• Prop full forward when below 100 KIAS.
• Throttle 15”.
• Carburetor heat recheck on.
• Seatbelts and Shoulder Harnesses - Secure.
3. Slow to 65 KIAS.
4. Power 21”.
5. Increase pitch - assume stall attitude (about 20 degrees pitch). As
aircraft slows, maintain coordinated flight.
6. Recognize and announce onset of stall.
7. Promptly recover as the stall occurs.
Recovery:
• Same as Power-Off Stall Recovery above, as applicable.
Minimum Controllable Airspeed
• Minimum controllable airspeed is that airspeed at which an increase
in angle of attack or load factor will result in an immediate stall. This
critical airspeed is contingent on various circumstances, such as gross
weight of the aircraft, maneuvering loads imposed by turns/pull-ups
and the existing density altitude. Students will be evaluated on ability
to establish MCA, positively control the aircraft and recognize incipient
stalls.
• MCA will be performed and recovered at an altitude no lower than
1500 AGL.
1. Clearing turns: First 90 degrees of turn - Carburetor heat on. Second
90 degrees of turn - Throttle 15”.
2. Flow check:
• Fuel selector on both.
• Cowl Flaps open.
• Flaps up.
• Mixture rich.
• Prop full forward when below 100 KIAS.
• Throttle 15”.
• Carburetor heat recheck on.
• Undercarriage - Check airspeed below Vlo (140 KIAS) and
extend landing gear.
• Seatbelts and Shoulder Harnesses - Secure.
3. Allow airspeed to slow into the flap operating range then lower flaps
one notch at a time. Airspeed will continue to slow as flaps are
extended. Pitch as necessary (initially) to maintain altitude. At
airspeeds lower than 70 KIAS, add power as necessary to maintain
altitude, flight is now in the “region of reverse command,” also known
as the “back side of the power curve.”
4. As airspeed approaches Vso increase power as necessary
(approximately 20” mp) to maintain altitude at this airspeed.
• Pitch controls airspeed.
• Power controls altitude.
5. M.C.A should be practiced in various configurations while in
coordinated straight and turning flight, and in coordinated climbs and
descents.
Recovery:
1. Apply full power.
2. Carburetor heat off.
3. Retract flaps to 20°.
4. Retract landing gear.
5. Slowly lower nose to level cruise attitude. As airspeed increases,
retract remaining flaps 10° at a time so that the flaps are completely
retracted prior to reaching Vy.
6. As cruise speed is attained, reduce power to cruise and re-trim.
7. Set prop, mixture, and close cowl flaps.
Emergency Descents
• Used for a rapid rate of descent during emergency conditions such as
an uncontrollable fire, a sudden loss of cabin pressurization, or any
other situation requiring rapid descent.
• To maintain positive load factors (G forces) and for the purpose of
clearing the area below, establish a 30 to 45 degree bank for at least 90
degrees of heading change while initiating the descent.
• Prolonged emergency descents may result in shock cooling of the
engine. Emergency descents are practiced long enough to establish and
stabilize the descent and are then terminated.
• Airspeeds used should be consistent with the airplane’s airspeed
limitations.
1. Clearing turn.
2. Throttles - Idle.
3. Propellers - Full.
4. Airspeed - Below Vlo (140 KIAS).
5. Landing gear - Down.
6. Maintain airspeed below Vno (approximately 20° of pitch down).
7. At completion of practice emergency descent:
8. Airspeed - Below Vlo (140 KIAS).
9. Landing gear - Up.
10. Reset Mixtures, Props, and Throttles for cruise
11. Recovery flow check.
Full Flap Go-Around
• The student will be required to demonstrate proficiency in initiating a
full flap go-around from a height of five feet above the runway. Full
flap go-arounds are to be taught using the following sequence:
1. Mixture, Propeller, Throttle - Full forward.
2. Carburetor heat - Off. Pitch for a climb attitude.
3. Flaps are raised immediately to 20 degrees.
4. Retract landing gear after a positive rate of climb indication.
5. Climb at Vx until any obstacles are cleared. If no obstacles exist,
climb at Vx.
6. When obstacles are cleared, accelerate to Vy. and retract remaining
flaps in 10° increments.
7. Cowl flaps open.
8. Sidestep clear of downwind so that runway below is visible. For
example, sidestep to tight for left hand traffic pattern.
Short Field Takeoff
• Use for short runways, up sloping runways, obstructions at the
departure end of the runway, and high density altitude conditions.
• Essentially, the aircraft is flown at Vx until the obstacle is cleared and
then flown at Vy. In most cases the manufacturer provides a more
specific procedure.
1. At hold-short line, review Short Field Takeoff checklist and set flaps
0 degrees.
2. Position the airplane for maximum utilization of available takeoff
area.
3. Align the aircraft with the runway centerline, making sure the nose
wheel is straight.
4. Hold brakes and apply FULL throttle. Check oil pressure and
tachometer for normal indications and that full power is being
developed.
5. Release brakes and accelerate to rotation speed of 55 KIAS at
Maximum takeoff weight.
6. Climb out at 63 KIAS until obstructions are cleared (or 50 feet AGL
for simulation).
7. Lower pitch slightly to Vy attitude and accelerate to 75 KIAS.
8. Retract gear and flaps after a positive rate of climb indication.
9. Cruise climb — 85 -95 KIAS.
Short Field Landing
1. Turn Final and check green gear light, props forward.
2. Full flaps if possible, flaps as practical (crosswind/gusty wind
conditions) otherwise.
3. Slow to 63 KIAS with a stable power-on approach. In gusty wind
conditions, add 5 KIAS for every 10 knots of gust.
4. Round-out at 55-60 KIAS.
5. Once nose wheel is on the ground, apply brakes heavily (as
necessary) to stop on available runway. As aircraft slows, brakes may
be applied more firmly due to increased friction with the surface.
6. Retract flaps and apply full back pressure to increase braking
effectiveness. Flap control should be visually checked prior to
retraction since landing gear could inadvertently be retracted in aircraft
with retractable landing gear. Consideration should be given to
leaving flaps down.
7. Taxi entire aircraft past the hold short line, come to a complete stop
and complete the After Landing checklist.
Soft Field Takeoff
• Soft field takeoff objective is to transfer weight from the wheels to the
wings as soon as possible. This eliminates rolling friction from the soft
field and allows aircraft to accelerate to the proper climb out speed.
• Complete run up prior to taxing onto soft field.
1. Flaps set 10 degrees (see POH).
2. Apply full back elevator while taxiing onto the soft field and apply
full power without stopping the aircraft.
3. Pitch as necessary to keep the nose wheel off the ground.
4. As main wheels lift off the ground, release back pressure and ease
the nose over so as to fly level in ground effect.
5. If there is an obstacle to clear, accelerate to Vx before climbing out
of ground effect. Climb out at Vx, until obstructions are cleared (or 50
feet AGL for simulation). Remaining procedure is the same as a short
field takeoff.
6. If there is no obstacle to clear, accelerate to Vy before climbing out
of ground effect.
7. Retract gear and flaps after a positive rate of climb indication.
8. Cruise climb — 85 - 95 KIAS.
• Note: Under no circumstances should aircraft be allowed to come
out of ground effect before reaching Vx.
Soft Field Landing
1. Turn Final and check green gear light, props forward.
2. Full flaps if possible, flaps as practical (crosswind/gusty wind
conditions) otherwise.
3. Slow to 70 KIAS with a stable power-on approach. In gusty wind
conditions, add 5 KIAS for every 10 knots of gust.
4. During flare, add a slight amount of power and touch down at
slowest possible airspeed. Land on main wheels first and continue to
hold back pressure to slowly transfer weight from wings to wheels.
Keep the nose wheel off the ground during the roll-out. DO NOT apply
brakes.
5. Taxi clear of the soft field without stopping. Use full back yoke so as
to keep weight off the nose wheel.
‘POH specifies to retract flaps, FAA Flight Training Handbook
specifies leaving flaps down
Eights On Pylons
• The objective of this maneuver is to fly the airplane in circular paths,
alternately left and right, in the form of a “figure-eight” around 2
selected points (pylons) on the ground, so that the point is maintained
in a fixed position under the wing of the aircraft during the turning
portions of the maneuver. During the maneuver, the pilot must divide
his attention between the ground references, his own aircraft and other
traffic in the area.
• Select two points perpendicular to the wind that will allow
approximately 3-5 seconds of straight and level flight between the
pylons (see diagram). Pylons should be approximately ¼ of a mile
apart.
1. Clearing turns.
2. Enter the maneuver, cross-downwind at pivotal altitude, and below
maneuvering speed. A sighting reference line parallels the aircraft’s
lateral axis from eye level. The aircraft is at pivotal altitude when this
sighting reference line appears to pivot around a selected point on the
ground. Pivotal altitude can be calculated by the following formula:
Pivotal altitude = (Knots Groundspeed) 2/l 1.3
3. Apply the necessary corrections so that the line-of-sight reference
line remains on the pylon with minimum longitudinal and vertical
movement without slips or skids.
4. Divide your attention between ground references and coordinated
flight.
5. If point is moving forward of the wing reference point, descend.
6. If point is moving behind the wing reference point, climb.
7. Crab for the wind during the straight portions of the maneuver.
Steep Power Turns
• Prior to execution of the maneuver, the aircraft should be established
in a clean configuration, at or blow Maneuvering speed and at least
1500 feet AGL.
• This maneuver is performed by executing maximum performance
turns of at least 360° both right and left using a bank angle of 50
degrees (±5 degrees).
• The student’s competence will be evaluated on the basis of his
planning, coordination, smoothness, prompt stabilization of the turns
and orientation during this maneuver.
1. Clearing turn.
2. The student should increase power as bank is established, and
decrease power during the roll-out to maintain constant airspeed. If trim
is used, power may be added just prior to rolling into bank and then
trimmed nose up as aircraft is rolled. Maintain altitude, bank angle and
airspeed during turn. Trim nose down during roll-out and reduce power
to its original setting. After completing at least 360° of turn
immediately roll into at least 360° of turn in the opposite direction.
Steep Spirals
Perform a clearing turn prior to a steep spiral.
• The student will perform a steep spiral around a selected ground
reference point and continue through three 360 degree turns. The
student should recover at a point which would easily facilitate a
continued pattern and approach to landing in the area around which the
spiral was performed.
• The student shall be competent in entering, maintaining, and
recovering from steep spirals using smooth, coordinated controls. Loss
of orientation, descending blow a safe altitude or excessive variation of
pitch attitude is disqualifying.
Chandelles
• The chandelle is actually a maximum performance climbing turn of
180 degrees in duration. It develops a sense of planning and feel for the
aircraft controls.
• The maneuver is entered from level flight, preferably on a cardinal
heading. Section lines or roads make excellent references, and may be
used instead of the directional gyro.
• All turns should be made into the wind, so as not to drift from the
training area.
• Prior to execution of the maneuver, the aircraft is established in a
clean configuration, no greater than maneuvering speed (100 KIAS)
and at least 1500 feet AGL
.
1. Clearing turns.
2. Cowl flaps open.
3. Roll into 30 degree bank.
4. Begin climb and apply full throttle for fixed pitch propeller driven
aircraft, or 25” mp/2700 rpm for constant speed propeller driven
aircraft.
5. When the 90 degree point is reached, the recovery back to wingslevel flight is initiated, but the climb is continued. Airspeed is about 7075 KIAS.
6. The airspeed will continue to bleed-off until, at the 180 degree point,
the wings are completely level, and airspeed is within 5 KIAS of
power-on stall speed.
7. At this point, the airplane is in a nose high attitude. The nose should
be slowly lowered without loss of altitude, and the airspeed allowed to
increase to cruise speed.
Lazy Eights
• The lazy eight is used purely as a training maneuver, and is valuable
since the pilot is required to constantly coordinate the changing control
pressures.
• The lazy eight consists of two 180 degree turns in opposite directions,
entered one from the other with symmetrical climbs and dives
performed during each turn. The airplane is rolled from one bank to the
other as the 180 degree direction changes are accomplished.
• All turns should be made into the wind, so as not to drift from the
practice area.
• The maneuver is entered from a level flight attitude on a heading
approximately perpendicular to the wind with the wing tip on the 90
degree reference point.
• Prior to execution of the maneuver, the aircraft should be established
in a clean configuration, no greater than maneuvering speed (100
KIAS) and at least 1500 feet AGL.
1. Clearing turns.
2. Set power to 2300 rpm for fixed pitch propeller driven aircraft, or
18”/2300 rpm for constant speed propeller driven aircraft.
3. Begin climbing turn.
4. At the 45 degree point in the climbing turn, maximum pitch up is
reached with 15 degree angle of bank. Airspeed is half way between
the beginning and 90° airspeeds. Nose begins to slowly drop towards
horizon.
5. At the 90 degree point of the turn, the airplane’s nose (longitudinal
axis) passes through the horizon with 30 degree angle of bank.
6. At the 135 degree point in a descending turn, maximum pitch down
is reached with 15° angle of bank. Airspeed is half way between the
90° and 180° airspeeds. As the descent continues, the wings are
gradually leveled, and should be level as the aircraft reaches 180
degrees of turn.
7. A climb is begun into a symmetrical second half of the maneuver in
the opposite direction. The altitude should now be the same as it was at
the start of the maneuver. The power setting is not changed throughout
the maneuver.
Spin Awareness
Spins
A spin may be defined as an aggravated stall that results in
autorotation. An uncoordinated rolling or yawing motion will cause one
wing to stall before the other. This determines the direction of the spin.
As the aircraft enters the autorotation phase of the spin, both wings are
stalled, however the outside wing is producing effective lift, while the
inside wing is producing no effective lift. The airplane describes a
corkscrew path in a downward direction. The airplane is falling instead
of flying, and it is rolling and yawing in a spiral path. For the Cessna
172, rate of descent is about 6000-7000 fpm. Rate of rotation for the
Cessna 172 varies from about 170 to 280 degrees per second. About
1000 feet is lost in a one turn spin. Somewhat more than twice this is
lost in a six turn spin.
• Unintentional Spins are likely to occur while in the landing pattern as
the result of improper piloting. Often a distraction or unusual event
takes the pilot’s attention away from controlling the aircraft. A situation
arises in which the aircraft is uncoordinated and the speed decays to the
point of stall.
• In introducing spins, the airplane should be taken first to a safe
altitude of 5000-6000 feet AGL so that recovery is completed 4000 feet
or more AGL. A section line or other ground reference such as a river
should be selected to align aircraft and by which to count the number of
rotations. The spin is entered with flaps up in a wings level power-off
stall. Just before the aircraft stalls, apply and firmly hold full back yoke
and full rudder in the direction in which the spin is desired. The
ailerons are held neutral. After two rotations recover from the spin.
• Spins should only be performed when called for in the training course
outline, and only in a Cessna 172. Parachutes are required for spins
unless the spins are required for the certification of airman. CFI
training is the only certification which requires spin training. See
AC61-67B Stall and Spin Awareness Training for additional
information.
• Spins will be performed for CFI training only and will not be
performed solo.
• WARNING: NEVER ATTEMPT A SPIN IN AN AIRCRAFT
PLACARDED AGAINST INTENTIONAL SPINS. RECOVERY
MAY BE VERY SLOW, OR PERHAPS IMPOSSIBLE.
Spin Recovery
• P.A.R.E.:
1. Power - Idle.
2. Ailerons - Neutral (and retract flaps if extended).
3. Rudder - Full opposite to the direction of rotation and hold it. The
only reliable cockpit instrument in a spin is the miniature airplane in
the turn coordinator.
4. Elevator - Forward yoke immediately after application of rudder.
The amount of forward yoke varies greatly with the type aircraft. The
Cessna 172 POH states “briskly forward,” but in actual practice with
the forward C.G. loading characteristic of training flights, briskly
forward will result in considerable negative G loading. As rotation
stops, neutralize controls and smoothly pull out of resulting dive.
• Spins should be practiced both to the right and to the left. It will be
noted that spin characteristics vary considerably by aircraft type and
even by the individual airplane. This is usually due to differences in
rigging to counteract torque, as well as torque itself. Characteristic of
the Cessna 172, relaxing of pro-spin control input may cause the spin to
change into a steep spiral. This can be determined by an increase in
indicated airspeed beyond 80 KIAS. Recovery should be initiated
immediately if the plane starts to steep
spiral since airspeed will increase rapidly. Recovery should also be
initiated immediately if the number of rotations cannot be determined,
or if the spin becomes flat. Consult the aircraft’s POH for specific
procedure and spin characteristics of the type aircraft you wish to spin.
Intentionally Left Blank
Multi-Engine Maneuvers
Flow Check
A flow check will facilitate recall and thorough completion of checklist
items. Flow checks for the following maneuvers are in the form of a
question mark. Begin at the bottom of the question mark with the trim
and work your way across the panel from right to left.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Fuel Selector
Cowl flaps
Carburetor Heat
Flaps
Mixtures
Propellers
Throttles
Gear
Auxiliary Fuel Pumps
GUMPSCC
GUMPSCC is a mnemonic Before Landing Checklist which can be
used in the landing pattern.
When lowering landing gear, do not remove hand from gear handle
until there is a green indication.
Other mnemonic items may be added to GUMPSCC such as the
landing light and cabin heater.
Gas (fuel selector valve and auxiliary pumps)
Undercarriage (three green)
Mixtures
Props
Seatbelts and shoulder harnesses
Carburetor Heat
Cowl Flaps
Steep Turns

Perform and recover from this maneuver at an altitude no lower
than 3000 AGL.
1. Power 18” mp
2. Clearing Turns
3. Flow check
a. Fuel selector – On
b. Cowl Flaps – Closed
a. Carb Heat – Off
b. Flaps – Up
c. Mixtures – Full Rich
d. Props – 2300 rpm
e. Throttles – 15”
f. Gear – Up
g. Aux. fuel Pumps – On
3. When on original heading and altitude
4. Roll in a coordinated 50 degree bank.
a. Passing 30 degrees of bank start increasing back
pressure
b. Power 19”-20”
c. Trim
5. 30 degree before desired heading
a. Start roll out
b. Release back pressure
6. Recovery flow check
Minimum Controlled Airspeed

Perform and recover from this maneuver at an altitude no lower
than 3000 AGL.
1. Power - 15”
1. Clearing Turns
3. Flow Check.
a. Fuel selector – On
b. Cowl Flaps – Open
c. Carb Heat – On
d. Flaps – 10 degrees
e. Mixtures – Full Rich
f. Props – Full forward below 100 kts.
g. Throttles – 15”
h. Gear – Down
i. Aux. fuel Pumps – On
j. Flaps – 20 degrees
k. Flaps – 30 degrees
l. Power 20”
m. Carb Heat – Off
4. When on original altitude and heading.
n. Pitch to maintain altitude
o. When airspeed approaches 1.2 Vsi +_ 5 kts (maintain
at least red line)
 Power – 16”-18”
 Pitch for airspeed, power for altitude
Recovery:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Power – Full
Pitch – Maintain altitude
Carb heat – Off
Flaps – 20 degrees
Gear – up
Flaps – retract in increments
Pitch for original altitude and heading
Recovery flow check.
Power-Off Stall, Clean Configuration
Perform and recover from this maneuver at an altitude no lower than
3000 AGL.
Stalls should be performed wings level and in turns.
1. Power - 15”
2. Clearing Turns
2. Flow Check.
a. Fuel selector – On
b. Cowl Flaps – Closed
c. Carb Heat – On
d. Flaps – o degrees
e. Mixtures – Rich
f. Props – Full forward below 100 kts.
g. Throttles – 15”
h. Gear – Up
i. Aux. fuel Pumps – On
3.
On desired heading and altitude.
a. Power to idle
b. When imminent stall or red line occurs recover.
Recovery:
Same as Power-Off Stall, Landing Configuration Recovery below, as
applicable.
Power-Off Stall, Landing Configuration

Perform and recover from this maneuver at an altitude no lower
than 3000 AGL.

Stalls should be performed wings level and in turns.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Power - 15”
Clearing Turns
Flow Check.
a. Fuel selector – On
b. Cowl Flaps – Closed
c. Carb Heat – On
d. Flaps – 10 degrees
e. Mixtures – Rich
f. Props – Full forward below 100 kts.
g. Throttles – 15”
h. Gear – Down
i. Aux. fuel Pumps – On
j. Flaps – 20 degrees
k. Flaps – 30 degrees
Established in Approach mode.
a. Power to idle
b. When imminent stall or red line occurs recover.
Recovery:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Decrease pitch attitude to break stall with minimum loss in
altitude.
Power – Full
Carb heat – Off
Flaps – Retract to 20 degrees.
Gear –Up
Positive rate – Flaps 10 degrees
Accelerate to Vy – Final flaps retraction.
8.
Recovery flow check
Power On Stall

Perform and recover from this maneuver at an altitude no lower
than 3000 AGL.

Stalls should be performed wings level and in turns.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Power - 15”
Clearing Turns
Flow Check.
a. Fuel selector – On
b. Cowl Flaps – Closed
c. Carb Heat – On
d. Flaps – Up
e. Mixtures – Rich
f. Props – Full forward below 100 kts.
g. Throttles – 15”
h. Gear – Up
i. Aux. fuel Pumps – On
Established 85kts climb.
a. Power 20”
b. Carb Heat – Off
c. Pitch for stall.
d. When imminent stall or red line occurs recover.
Recovery:
Same as Power-Off Stall, Landing Configuration Recovery above, as
applicable.
Drag Demo

Perform and recover from this maneuver at an altitude no lower
than 3000 AGL.
1.
2.
3.
Power - 15”
Clearing Turns
Flow Check.
a. Fuel selector – On
b. Cowl Flaps – Closed / Open, Outside temp
c. Carb Heat – Off
d. Flaps – Up
4.
5.
6.
e. Mixtures – Rich
f. Props – 2300 RPM.
g. Throttles – 15”
h. Gear – Up
i. Aux. fuel Pumps – On
Established on desired heading.
a. Maintain Vyse (85 kts) for the following steps:
b. Mixture- Rich
c. Props – Full Forward
d. Throttles – Operative engine on full
e. Throttle on desired engine – Close (flow check)
f. Simulate feather prop on inoperative engine (CFI set
up zero thrust – 10” and prop full forward)
g. Maintain airspeed 85 kts (Blue line).
h. Note the VSI for following steps:
i. Flaps 20 degrees, maintain blue line, and note
performance
j. Gear - Down, maintain blue line, and note
performance
k. Flaps – 30 degrees, maintain blue line, and note
performance
Inoperative engine: Power – warm-up – 15 mp
a. Gear – Retract
b. Flaps – Retract increments
c. Cruise flight
Inoperative engine Recovery flow check
VMC Demonstration


Perform and recover from this maneuver at an altitude no lower
than 3000 AGL.
For non-turbo charged twins, as density altitude increases, Vmc
decreases and will eventually be below stall speed.
1.
2.
3.
Power - 15” mp
Clearing Turns
Flow Check.
a. Fuel selector – On
b. Cowl Flaps – Closed or open depending on outside
temp
c. Carb Heat – Off
d. Flaps – Up
e. Mixtures – Rich
f. Props – Full forward below 100 kts.
g. Throttles – 15”
h. Gear – Up
i. Aux. fuel Pumps – On
Established desired heading.
a. Simulate single engine
b. Pitch up slightly.
c. At the signs of loss of directional control or stall
warning:
d. Pitch – Down for 85kts
e. Reduce throttle on good engine as necessary and only
if directional control is not gained promptly by
lowering nose.
f. After obtaining 85 kias, demonstration complete.
Recovery:
4.
1.
2.
3.
Good throttle – 15” mp
Once cylinder head temperature in the green: Throttles – Full
Recovery flow check
Emergency Descents

Used for a rapid rate of descent during emergency conditions such
as an uncontrollable fire, sudden loss of cabin pressurization, or
any other situation requiring rapid descent.

To maintain positive load factors (G force) and for the purpose of
clearing the area below, establish a 30 to 45 degree bank for at
least 90 degrees of heading change while initiating the descent.

Prolonged emergency descents may result in shock cooling of the
engine. Emergency descents are practiced long enough to establish
and stabilize the descent and are then terminated.

Airspeeds used should be consistent with the airplanes airspeed
limitations.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Clearing Turns
Throttles – Idle
Propellers – Full
Airspeed – Below Vlo (140 kias)
Landing gear – Down
Maintain airspeed below Vle (140 kias approx 20 degree pitch
down)
7. At completeion of practice emergency descent:
8. Airspeed – Below Vlo retract (112)
9. Landing gear – Up
10. Reset Mixtures, Props, and Throttles for cruise
11. Recovery Check List
Full Flap Go-Around / Rejected Landing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Mixtures, Propellers, Throttles – Full Forward
Carburetor heat – Off
Pitch for climb attitude
Positive rate of climb
a. Gear – Up
b. Flaps – Up
Climb at Vx or Vy with no obstacles
Cowl Flaps – Open
Procedures for Engine Failure
Engine failure during ground roll (aborted takeoff)
Engine failure during ground roll may be simulated by CFI using
throttle to idle.
Prior to takeoff review airspeeds, emergency procedures, and what
action will be taken in the event of an engine failure or aborted takeoff.
Consideration should be given to density altitude vs. single engine
service ceiling, off airport landing, alternatives, lessening weight, or
waiting for more favorable atmospheric conditions.
Accelerate/Stop distance should not be longer than available runway.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Throttles – Idle
Braking – Maximum
Fuel Selector – Off
Battery. Alternator, and Magneto/Start Switches –
Off
Engine Failure After Liftoff
Engine failure after liftoff may be simulated by CFI using throttle
control.
Prior to takeoff review airspeeds, emergency procedures, and what
action will be taken in the event of an engine failure or aborted takeoff.
Consideration should be given to density altitude vs. single engine
service ceiling, off airport landing, alternatives, lessening weight, or
waiting for more favorable atmospheric conditions.
The time critical nature of an engine failure after liftoff requires
immediate action and a need for simplified procedures. Note that the
following procedures assume that the mixtures, propellers, and throttles
are full forward.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Aircraft control and airspeed – Pitch for Vyse (Vxse as
appropriate). There will be a roll and yaw toward
inoperative engine. Bank 5 degrees into good engine
and apply rudder pressure necessary to maintain
directional control. Rudder pressure will be on the side
of the good engine with the ball out of center toward
the good engine about ½ - 1 ball.
Identify – Dead foot Dead engine
Verify – Slowly retard inoperative engine’s throttle.
No change in rudder pressure means you’ve picked the
correct engine. Do not use tachometers or manifold
pressure gauges since they may indicate near normal
indications.
Feather – Inoperative engine propeller.
Evaluate performance
a. Climbing – Climb straight ahead to a safe
altitude and return for landing. Complete
manufacturer’s Engine Failure After Lift off
and In Flight checklist.
b. Unable to climb or maintain altitude –
Land ahead. Secure engines as time
permits.
Engine Failure in Flight
Engine failure in flight may be simulated by CFI using mixture control
at an altitude no lower than 3000 AGL within vicinity of an airport.
One engine inoperative landings are simulated by CFI retarding the
throttle of one engine to idle.
Reason for failure should be determined prior to attempting an airstart.
Determining which engine failed may be difficult with throttles near
idle such as descent during an approach. In this circumstance, increase
throttle will give the differential needed to make a determination.
Go around may not be possible.
Flaps may be lowered when the field is made and there is no possibility
of go around.
Anticipate a longer float down the runway since a feathered propeller
lacks the braking action of a windmilling propeller at idle.
1. Aircraft control and airspeed – Pitch for Vyse. There will be a roll
and yaw toward inoperative engine. Bank 5 degrees into good engine
and apply rudder pressure necessary to maintain directional control.
Rudder pressure will be on the side of the good engine with the ball out
of center toward the good engine about ½ - 1 ball.
2. Mixtures, Propellers, Throttles – Full Forward.
3. Drag – Landing gear and flaps up. Once a descent to land is made
and level flight is no longer anticipated (such as abeam intended point
of landing on downwind, glide slope intercept, descent from MDA, or
descent from circle to land) the landing gear may be lowered.
4. Identify – Dead foot Dead engine
5. Verify – Slowly retard inoperative engine’s throttle. No change in
rudder pressure means you’ve picked the correct engine. Do not use
tachometers or manifold pressure gauges since they may indicate near
normal indications.
6. Feather – Inoperative engine propeller.
7.






Secure:
Mixture Control – Idle cut-off
Fuel Selector – Off
Aux Fuel pump – Off
Magneto/Start Switch – Off
Alternator Switch – Off
Cowl Flap - Closed
Intentionally Left Blank
Airspace and Cross Country Preparation
Controlled and Uncontrolled Airspace
Class A:
• Dimensions: 18000 MSL up to and including FL 600 (but not
including less than 1500 AGL).
• Pilot equipment requirements for operating within Class A airspace:
1. Instrument rated and operated under IFR (IFR flight plan).
2. Two-way radio.
3. Transponder with 4096 codes and Mode C.
4. IFR instrumentation and equipment.
5. ATC Clearance.
Note: Upon written notification at least 4 days before proposed
operation, ATC may authorize a deviation from the above
requirements.
Class B:
• Dimensions: As depicted.
• Pilot/equipment requirements for operating within Class B airspace:
1. At least a Private Pilot Certificate or Student Pilot Certificate
meeting requirements of FAR 61.95 except certain Class B airspaces
(including O’Hare) which require at least a Private Pilot Certificate.
2. Two-way radio.
3. Transponder with 4096 codes and Mode C.’
4. VOR or TACAN receiver for IFR operations.
5. ATC Clearance, e.g., “...cleared to enter Class B airspace.”
Class C:
• Typical dimensions: Inner circle surface to 4000 AGL, 5 NM radius;
outer circle 1200 AGL to 4000 AGL, 10 NM radius; outer area 20 NM
radius.
• Pilot/equipment requirements for operating within Class C airspace:
1. Pilot certification: Student Pilot Certificate.
2. Transponder with 4096 codes and Mode C.’
3. Two-way radio communication established with ATC.
Note: If the controller responds to a radio call with, “(aircraft call sign)
standby,” radio communications have been established and the pilot
can enter the Class C airspace. However, if the controller responds to
the initial radio call without using the aircraft call sign, radio
communications have not been established and the pilot may not enter
the Class C airspace.
Class D:
• Dimensions: Surface up to depicted MSL altitude (typically 2500
AGL), radius as depicted. Applies to airports with operating control
towers.
• Pilot/equipment requirements for operating within Class D airspace:
1. Pilot certification: Student Pilot Certificate.
2. Two-way radio communication established with ATC. However, if
the radio fails in flight, the pilot may land if weather is at or above
basic VFR minimums, visual contact with the tower is maintained, and
clearance to land is received (e.g., light gun signals).
Note: If the controller responds to a radio call with, “(aircraft call sign)
standby,” radio communications have been established and the pilot
can enter the Class D airspace. However, if the controller responds to
the initial radio call without using the aircraft call sign, radio
communications have not been established and the pilot may not enter
the Class D airspace.
Note:
• Initial call-up should be made 15 miles from Class D airport.
• It is not necessary to request permission to leave the tower frequency
once outside of Class D airspace.
• Circle airport to the left unless told otherwise.
• NFCT indicates Non-Federal Control Tower. Operational rules
remain the same.
Class E:
• Dimensions:
1. When depicted by a dashed magenta line, begins at surface. At
airports without control towers, Class E airspace begins at the surface
when there is weather reporting, ATC communications, and an lAP.
2. When inside a depicted magenta vignette, begins at and above 700
AGL. Used for airport with an TAP.
3. Outside of a depicted magenta vignette or when Class E airspace
abuts Class G airspace (depicted by a blue vignette), begins at and
above 1200 AGL. Includes Federal airways.
4. When depicted by a staggered blue line, begins as specified.
5. When not depicted, begins at and above 14500 MSL for 48
contiguous states and Alaska within 12 NM of the coast, excluding
portions of Alaska or less than 1500 AGL.
• Class E airspace extends upward to the base of the overlying or
adjacent controlled airspace and therefore the vertical limit is not
depicted.
• Pilot/equipment requirements for operating within Class E airspace:
Student Pilot Certificate.
Class G:
• Dimensions: That airspace not designated as Class A, B, C, D or E.
• Pilot/equipment requirements for operating within Class G airspace:
Student Pilot Certificate.
Basic VFR weather minimums:
• Refer to table in FAR 91.155. Additionally, VFR traffic not allowed
within the surface areas of Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E
airspace when ceiling below 1000 and at least 3 SM flight visibility and
for take off/landing/traffic pattern 3 SM ground visibility. If ground
visibility is not reported then use flight visibility.
• Special VFR Clearances:
1. Clearance received from tower or if no tower exists at field, the
nearest tower, FSS, or center.
2. Clear of clouds and at least 1 SM flight visibility and for take off /
landing 1 SM ground visibility. If ground visibility is not reported then
use flight visibility.
3. Special VFR by fixed-wing aircraft is prohibited when depicted by
NO SVFR on sectional chart.
4. Between sunset and sunrise, the pilot must be instrument rated and
the aircraft equipped for IFR flight.
Note: Operation of the airport beacon during the hours of daylight often
indicates that ceiling/ground visibility is less than 1000/3. The pilot
must not rely on daylight beacon operation to indicate IFR, since there
is no regulatory requirement.
Aircraft speed:
1.
2.
250 KIAS limit below 10000 MSL
200 KIAS limit at or below 2500 AGL within 4 NM
of the primary airport of a Class C or Class D airport.
2.200 K.IAS limit underlying a Class B airspace or in
a VFR corridor through Class B airspace.
Special Use Airspace
Prohibited Area:
• Established for security or national welfare. Flight of aircraft is
prohibited.
Restricted Area:
• Existence of unusual, often invisible, hazards to aircraft such as
artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles. Authorization from
the controlling agency (FAA) is required.
Warning Area:
• Similar to a Restricted Area, except in international waters (beyond 3
miles of the coast). Cannot be legally designated as a Restricted Area.
Military Operations Areas (MOA):
• Pilots should contact any FSS within 100 miles of the area to obtain
accurate real-time information concerning the MOA hours of operation.
Prior to entering an active MOA, pilots should contact the controlling
agency for traffic advisories.
Alert Area:
• Depicted to inform pilots of high volume of pilot training or unusual
aerial activity.
Controlled Firing Areas:
• Not depicted on charts, operations are suspended when spotter
aircraft, radar, or ground lookout indicate a nearby aircraft.
Other Airspace Areas
Airport Advisory Area (AAA)/Local Airport Advisory (LAA):
• Dimensions: 10 SM radius of an airport where a control tower is not
operating but where a FSS is located. Participation is strongly
recommended but not mandatory. ID, A/C type, position and intentions
are stated for flight. For taxi and departure, also state type of flight,
e.g., VFR or IFR. Calls are made to “...Radio.” Suffix initial calls with,
“Request Airport Advisory.” Initial call-up should be made 10 miles
from airport.
Military Training Routes (MTR):
• Low-altitude, high-speed (excess of 250 knots) training. Can extend
several miles to either side of charted centerline. Pilots should contact
FSSs within 100 NM of a particular MTR to obtain current information
on usage. Extreme vigilance should be exercised while flying through
or near these areas.
IR - conducted in accordance with IFRs regardless of WX conditions.
VR - conducted in accordance with VFRs
4 digit numbers - At or below 1500 AGL (with no segment above
1500).
3 digit numbers - Above 1500 AGL (segments may be below 1500). \
Temporary Flight Restrictions:
• Emergencies, disaster areas, public events and other incidents or
events that may injure persons or property due to hazards or congestion
of sightseeing aircraft.
Flight Limitations/Prohibitions:
• Near Space Flight Operations and Presidential parties.
Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations:
• Report altitudes in MSL. Tabulations in AP/F Directory. Prior to
commencing a jump near an airport, the pilot should broadcast
aircraft’s altitude, position relative to the airport, and the approximate
time the jump will commence and terminate.
Miscellaneous
Transponder operation:
1. At or above 10000 MSL excluding at and below 2500 AGL.
2. Within 30 NM of a Class B primary airport below 10000 MSL.
3. Within and above all Class C airspaces up to 10000 MSL.
4. Within 10 NM of certain designated airports as specified in
Appendix D to FAR 91 (currently, only Logan International Airport,
Billings, MT).
5. Flying across the ADIZ.
6. Anytime an aircraft is equipped with a transponder.
• Radar beacon phraseology:
1. Ident - press ident only if told to do so by ATC.
2. Stop altitude squawk - turn off altitude reporting
switch, e.g., from “ALT” to “ON.”
3. Squawk VFR - set squawk code to 1200.
• Squawk codes:
1200- VFR
7700 - Emergency
7600 – Radio Failure
7500 - Hijacking
National security:
• All aircraft entering domestic U.S. Airspace from points outside must
provide for identification prior to Air Defense Identification Zone
(ADIZ) penetration. Operational requirements:
1. Flight Plan - IFR or DVFR must be filed before departure, otherwise
aircraft is subject to interception.
2. Two-way radio.
3. Transponder - Mode C.
4. Position reporting for DVFR - Estimated time of ADIZ penetration
must be filed with the aeronautical facility at least 15 minutes prior to
penetration.
5. Aircraft position tolerances:
a) Over land, plus or minus 5 minutes and within 10 NM of
penetration estimated time/point.
b) Over water, plus or minus 5 minutes and within 20 NM of
penetration estimated time/point.
Sample Communications For Class C Airspace
Aircraft: “Clarksburg approach control, Cessna 12345.”
Approach control: “Cessna 12345, Clarksburg approach go ahead.” Aircraft: “Cessna 12345 seven miles northwest of Fairmont at four
thousand five hundred, landing Clarksburg with information
Foxtrot.”
Approach control: “Cessna 12345 squawk 4231 and ident”
Aircraft: “Cessna 12345 squawk 4231 and ident.”
Approach control: “Cessna 345 radar contact six miles northwest of
Fairmont, turn left heading two one zero for vector to runway three one
descend to two thousand.”
Aircraft: “Cessna 345 left turn two one zero, descend to two thousand.”
Approach control: “Cessna 345 traffic eleven o’clock four miles
northbound altitude unknown.”
Aircraft: “Cessna 345 traffic in sight.”
Approach control: “Cessna 345 position five miles northeast of
Clarksburg, contact tower one one niner point one.”
Aircraft: “Cessna 345 tower one one finer point one.”
“Clarksburg tower, Cessna 12345 five northeast at two thousand for
landing.”
Tower: “Cessna 345 enter right base runway three one, number two
behind the King Air on two mile final.”
‘ldent only if instructed to do so.
Aircraft: “Cessna 345 right base runway three one, number two.”
Tower: “Cessna 345 cleared to land runway three one.”
Aircraft: “Cessna 345 cleared to land runway three one.”
Tower: “Cessna 345 turn right onto next taxiway and contact ground on
one two one point six.”
Aircraft: “Cessna 345 contact ground one two one point six.”
“Clarksburg ground, Cessna 12345 clear of runway three one taxi to
terminal.”2
Ground control: “Cessna 345 right turn next intersection, taxi to
ramp.”3
Aircraft: “Cessna 345 roger.”
Determining Pressure Altitude
• Pressure altitude is used in flight computer calculations and takeoff,
climb, cruise, and landing performance tables. The simplest method for
determining pressure altitude is to dial 29.92 into an altimeter’s
Kolisman window. Not everyone carries an altimeter with them in their
flight bag, so an alternative method is to use a table such as that found
in the Airman ‘S Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. A less
accurate but more practical method for determining pressure altitude is
the 1” Hg per 1000’ altitude rule-of-thumb. Examples:
29.92
Standard pressure
-30.42 Local altimeter setting
- .50 x 1000 = -500
+668 Field elevation
168 Pressure altitude
29.92 Standard pressure
-29.72 Local altimeter setting
.20 x 1000 = 200
+668 Field elevation
868 Pressure altitude
Cross Country Preparation Checklist (and How to Obtain a
Weather Briefing)
When you know the destinations for your trip:
A. The Sectional.
Determine the routing for each leg considering:
• Special Use Airspace.
• Unfavorable terrain.
• VOR or Pilotage navigation.
2. Draw the selected route on the chart.
3. Pick checkpoints along each leg based upon:
• Distance required to reach cruise altitude and airspeed.
• Reasonable length of time between checkpoints (10-15 NM).
• Recognizability of potential checkpoints.
• Distance required to prepare for/execute arrival procedures.
B. The Navigation Log.
1. Prepare a navigational log for each trip leg:
• Fill in departure airport, checkpoints, and destination.
• Use plotter to enter true course and checkpoint-to-checkpoint
distances.
• Use chart variation to convert true courses to magnetic courses.
C. Weight and Balance Information.
1. Find out which aircraft you will be flying when you schedule -obtain the Basic Empty Weight so you may complete a weight and
balance form.
D. The AIM, A/FD and NOTAMs publications.
1. General Airport Information:
• Field elevation.
• Associated FSS and telephone number.
• Runway lengths, surface type, and lighting.
• Fuel availability.
• Remarks.
2. Airport and enroute radio frequencies:
• Airports: FSS, approach/departure control, ground control,
clearance delivery, radar service for VFR aircraft
• Enroute: Navaid frequencies, remoted FSS frequencies.
3. Pertinent NOTAMs.
When you arrive at the airport:
A. Contact FSS for a weather briefing.
1. Dialing l-800-WX-BRIEF will connect you to the nearest
FSS. CKB is served by the Elkins FSS which is located at the EKN
airport.
2. A menu of choices will greet you. Pressing 0 will give you a briefer.
3. The phone in the FSU flight planning room is programmed to dial by
pressing ?. Once the connection is made, the briefer is obtained by
pressing 0.
4. Be ready to take notes.
5. What to say:
• Pilot qualifications, e.g., student, private, commercial, and
whether instrument rated.
• VFR or IFR.
• Aircraft’s N-number. If you do not know the N-number, then
give the pilot’s name.
• Aircraft type, e.g., Cessna 172.
• Departure point
• Proposed route of flight.
• Destination.
• Proposed flight altitude(s).
• Estimated time of departure.
• Estimated time en route.
• Request a standard briefing (or abbreviated briefing)
6. Make sure you are advised of:
• Any hazardous weather advisories.
• The weather synopsis.
• Current conditions.
• Enroute and destination forecasts.
• Forecast winds aloft.
• Notice to Airmen (NOTAMs). NOTAMs available through
the telecommunications network are given by the briefer, however
published NOTAMs must be requested if the pilot does not have access
to them.
B. Complete the Navigation Log, compute:
• Groundspeed for each leg (winds aloft should be interpolated).
• ETE for each leg.
• Fuel bum for each leg.
C. Prepare flight plans for the appropriate leg or legs of the trip.
Remember:
• True Airspeed is in knots.
• Proposed departure time is Zulu time.
• Initial cruising altitude should follow the hemispheric rule.
• Estimated time enroute will have 30 minutes “grace period”
added to it.
D. File the first flight plan. File subsequent legs at destination airports.
E. Preflight.
The flight:
A. Note time of departure and call FSS to activate flight plan.
B. Update Navigation log and perform instrument and fuel
check at check-points.
C. While Enroute, obtain as necessary local NOTAMs for
destination airport from FSS on charted frequencies and
weather updates from EFAS on 122.0 MHz. Call sign for the
local FSS is “Elkins radio” and for the local EFAS is
“Washington flight watch.”
D. Remember to close your flight plan.
Leaning
• POH cruise performance data is based on a properly leaned engine.
Full rich mixture settings can result in up to 50% greater fuel usage
than a properly leaned engine. Several methods exist for leaning an
engine. The method sed depends on available equipment. Whichever
method is used, it must be done carefully. An engine that is run too lean
will suffer severe damage and could even quit in flight.
• Anytime Power, Altitude, or Carb heat are changed reset the mixture.
1. EGT (Exhaust Gas Temperature) method:
• Lean the mixture slowly for peak EGT.
• Enrichen the mixture until temperature drops 50°F (see table below
for other settings).
• If engine roughness is noted, further enrichen the mixture.
2. RPM method (cannot be used in aircraft with constant speed prop):
• Lean the mixture slowly for peak rpm.
• Further lean the mixture until rpm drops 10-25 rpm.
• If engine roughness is noted, enrichen the mixture.
3. Engine Roughness method (use when EGT is not available and
experiencing turbulent air):
• Lean the mixture until engine roughness or a drop off in power is
noticed and then enrichen mixture by % of a turn clockwise.
• If engine roughness is noted, further enrichen the mixture.
EGT
Corresponding
RPM
Notes
125°F rich of
peak EGT’
Max. rpm
Best power.
Engine-safe,_but uses
more fuel
50°F rich of peak
EGT2
10-25 rpm lean of
max.
rpm
POH Recommended
cruise
Peak EGT
-
50° lean of peak
EGT
-
Use with less than 60%
BHP
Emergency endurance
setting
Use with less than 55%
BHP
V-Speeds, Weights, and Capacities
Speeds are in KIAS
Weights are in Pounds
Vso
Vmca
Cessna
172P
33
Cessna
172RG
50
-
BE 76
Duchess
55
65
Vs1
Vsse
Vr
Vx
Vxse
Vy
Yyse
Vfe
10 degree Vfe
20 degree Vfe
Va
Vlo
Vno
Vle
Vne
Best Glide
Max.Ramp Weight
Max. Takeoff Weight
Max. Landing Weight.
Max. Zero Fuel Weight
Utility Weight
Max. Demo. Crosswind
Usable Fuel Gallons
Total Fuel Gallons
Fuel Octane
Oil Capacity (sump)
44
54
55
67
85-95
100
130
100
106
140
145
164
182
75/65f
2650
2650
2650
60
59
70
85
110
99
127
158
65
2407
2400
2400
-2107
15
40
42
100LL
8/6
1555
18
62
66
100LL
8 qt
57
71
71
71
85
85
85
110
132
112
154
140
194
95
3916
3900
3900
17
100
103
100LL
8 qt
1 Airspeeds given in the Cessna 172P POH are in MPH CAS and MPH
IAS. Speeds given in this table are in KIAS and in most cases, when
converted, equal or are more conservative than those found in the POH.
Consult POH for specific speeds.
Attitude, Power, and Airspeed
Attitude
Vx Climb
12° up
Vy, Climb
8°up
Cessna
172P
Full
59
Full
73
Cessna
172RG
Full
64
2400
Full
88
2400
BE 76 Duchess
Full
2700
Full
2700
82
88
Cruise Climb
5°up
Cruise
0°
Slow
Cruise/Holding
Gear up as applies,
1° up
CruisePowerDescent
4° clown
Cruise Airspeed
Descent
2° down
Emergency Descent
20° down
Level Approach
Gear up and flaps
10°
ILS Descent, Gear
down
& flaps (up/l0°), 2°
down
Non-prec. Descent,
Gear
down & flaps
(up/10°), 4°
Level-off at MDA
l° up
75%
105
140
24”
2300
145
20”
2300
100
20”
2300
125
115
23”
2300
125
23”
2300
150
2000
105
20”
2300
115
20”
2300
145
-
-
-
-
Idle
2700
140
-
-
17”
2300
90
17”
2300
100
1700
90
(up)
17”
2300
90
(10°)
17”
2300
100
(10°)
1500
90
(up)
15”
2300
90
(10°)
15”
2300
100
(10°)
2100
90
20”
2300
90
20”
2300
100
Downwind
2000
90
20”
2300
90
17”
2300
100
Abeam intended
point of
landing-- 180°
1500
75
15”
75
15”
100
Final - Full Flaps
No Flaps
80
2400
105
2100
90
2400
23”
2400
23”
2300
100
Base Leg
Full
As
req.
As
req.
70
65
70
As
req.
As
req.
70
65
70
As
req.
As
req.
90
751
88
Intentionally Left Blank