Table S1
Studies of the Allee effect in natural animal populations
Organism
Allee
effect?
Type of
evidence
Strength
Mechanism(s)
Evidence
A
Type of
study
Motivation
Source
observational
basic research
Aviles and
Tufino 1998
manipulation
basic research
Berryman et al.
1985
manipulation
basic research
Bonte et al. 2004
Terrestrial arthropods
social spider
(Anelosimus
eximius)
mountain pine beetle
(Dendroctonus
ponderosae
Hopkins)
dune wolf spider
(Pardosa monticola)
butterflies
(Parnassius clodius,
P. smintheus)
monarch butterfly
(Danaus plexippus
L.)
Aphytis melinus
DeBach
Neodryinus
typhlocybae
pine beetle
(Dendroctonus
frontalis)
seed weevil (Apion
ulicis (Forster))
Parasitoid insects
Yes
both
Weak
cooperative
feeding and
cooperative
breeding
Yes
component
NA
cooperative
feeding
Unclear
both
NA
dispersal
reproduction
population
dynamics,
migration
Yes
component
NA
mate limitation
reproduction
observational
basic research
Calabrese et al.
2008
Yes
component
NA
cooperative
defense
survival
observational
basic research
Calvert et al.
1979
Yes
demographic
Weak
unknown
colonization
manipulation
biocontrol
No
demographic
NA
NA
colonization
manipulation
biocontrol
Yes
demographic
Uncertain
cooperative
feeding
observational
pest
Yes
component
NA
growth
colonization and
extinction
body size (fitness
component)
basic research
Yes
demographic
Uncertain
mate limitation
colonization
observational
natural
experiment
extinction,
fitness, survival
biocontrol
Campbell 1976
Fauvergue et al.
2007
Friedenberg et
al. 2007
Hoddle 1991
Hopper and
Roush 1993
gypsy moth
(Lymantria dispar)
Wood-boring beetles
bush cricket
(Metrioptera
roeseli)
Glanville fritillary
butterfly (Melitaea
cinxia)
gypsy moth
(Lymantria dispar)
burnet moth
(Zygaena
filipendulae)
gypsy moth
(Lymantria dispar)
Coenagrion
mercuriale
viburnum whitefly
(Aleurotrachelus
jelinekii (Frauenf.))
gypsy moth
(Lymantria dispar)
spruce beetle
(Dendroctonus
rufipennis)
gypsy moth
(Lymantria dispar)
spread rate,
population
dynamics
colonization
observational
observational
invasive
basic research
Johnson et al.
2006
Jordal et al. 2001
manipulation
basic research
Kindvall et al.
1998
observational
conservation
observational
invasive
migration
manipulation
basic research
mate limitation
reproduction
manipulation
invasive
migration
observational
conservation
NA
dispersal
cooperative
feeding and
predator satiation
Menendez et al.
2002
Robinet et al.
2008
Rouquette and
Thompson 2007
observational
basic research
Southwood et al.
1989
demographic
Strong
mate limitation
reproduction and
survival
population
dynamics, spread
rate
observational
invasive
Tobin et al. 2007
Yes
both
Weak
cooperative
feeding
colonization
manipulation
pest
Yes
demographic
Uncertain
mate limitation
colonization
observational
invasive
component
NA
mate limitation
reproduction
manipulation
basic research
Yes
Unclear
demographic
demographic
Strong
NA
mate limitation
mate limitation
No
component
NA
none
Yes
both
Weak
mate limitation
and dispersal*
Yes
demographic
Strong
mate limitation
mate limitation
population
dynamics,
reproduction and
dispersal
colonization/
extinction
Yes
component
NA
dispersal
Yes
component
NA
Yes
component
NA
Unclear
component
Yes
Kuussaari et al.
1998
Liebhold and
Bascompte 2003
Wallin and Raffa
2004
Whitmire and
Tobin 2006
Aquatic Invertebrates
abalone (Haliotis
laevigata)
Yes
Babcock and
Keesing 1999
ribbed mussel
(Geukensia demissa)
Unionid mussel
(Elliptio
complanata)
starfish (Acanthaster
planci)
conch (Strombus
gigas)
mussels (Mytilus
edulis)
polychaete
(Galeolaria
caespitosa)
rock lobster (Jasus
edwardsii)
barnacle
(Semibalanus
balanoides)
diaptomid copepods
(Hesperodiaptomus
shoshone and
Skistodiaptomus
shoshone)
sea urchin (Diadema
antillarum Philippi)
sea urchin
(Stronglyocent-otus
franciscanus)
sea urchin,
(Stronglyocentrotus
purpuratus and S.
droebachiensis)
copepod
(Hesperodiaptomus
shoshone)
Unclear
component
NA
habitat alteration
survival
manipulation
basic research
Bertness and
Grosholz 1985
Yes
component
NA
mate limitation
Downing et al.
1993
both
Strong
predator satiation
observational
natural
experiment
conservation
Yes
fertilization
population
dynamics
Yes
component
NA
mate limitation
manipulation
conservation
Unclear
component
NA
habitat alteration
reproduction
growth (fitness
component)
manipulation
basic research
Dulvy et al. 2004
Gascoigne and
Lipcius 2004
Gascoigne et al.
2005
Yes
component
NA
fertilization
manipulation
conservation
Hollows et al.
2007
Yes
component
NA
mate limitation
predator satiation
or cooperative
defense
survival
natural
experiment
harvest
Yes
component
NA
habitat alteration
recruitment
manipulation
basic research
Kent et al. 2003
manipulation
basic research
Kramer et al.
2008
conservation
Hunter et al.
2005
Yes
both
Uncertain
mate limitation
colonization,
population
dynamics,
reproduction
Unclear
component
NA
mate limitation
reproduction
manipulation
basic research
Levitan 1991
Yes
component
NA
mate limitation
fertilization
manipulation
basic research
Levitan et al.
1992
Yes
component
NA
mate limitation
fertilization
manipulation
basic research
Levitan 2002
Yes
both
Uncertain
mate limitation
colonization,
reproduction
natural
experiment
basic research
Sarnelle and
Knapp 2004
abalone species,
Haliotis laevigata
and Haliotis scalaris
queen conch
(Strombus gigas)
conch (Strombus
gigas and Strombus
costatus)
Unclear
component
NA
unknown
survival
observational
conservation
Yes
component
NA
mate limitation
reproduction
observational
conservation
Shepherd 1998
Stoner and RayCulp 2000
Unclear
component
NA
mate limitation
reproduction
observational
conservation
Tewfik and
Guzman 2003
population
dynamics,
survival,
reproduction
observational
conservation
Angulo et al.
2007
survival
observational
basic research
Bekoff and
Wells 1982
predator satiation
cooperative
feeding
survival
natural
experiment
basic research
survival
observational
conservation
survival
extinction,
survival
observational
conservation
observational
basic research
observational
natural
experiment
basic research
Mammals
island fox (Urocyon
littoralis)
coyote (Canis
latrans)
pronghorn
(Antilocapra
americana)
African wild dog
(Lycaon pictus)
chamois (Rupicapra
rupicapra)
mongoose (Suricata
suricatta)
dwarf mongoose
(Helogale parvula)
nutria (Myocastorcoypus)
fur-bearing seals
South American fur
seal (Arctocephalus
australis)
mate limitation
and predator
satiation*
cooperative
breeding and
defense
Yes
both
Weak
Yes
component
NA
Yes
component
NA
Unclear
component
NA
Yes
component
NA
Yes
both
Strong
Yes
both
Uncertain
predator satiation
cooperative
defense
cooperative
breeding
Unclear
demographic
NA
mate limitation
reproduction
population
dynamics
No
component
NA
none
extinction
observational
conservation
Drake 2005a
Gerber and
Hilborn 2001
Yes
component
NA
cooperative
defense
survival
observational
basic research
Harcourt 1992
invasive
Berger and
Conner 2008
Buettner et al.
2007
Capurro et al.
1997
Clutton-Brock et
al. 1999
Creel and Creel
1991
elk (Cervus elaphus
nelsoni)
Yes
both
Weak
African Wild dog
(Lycaon pictus)
Yes
component
NA
Yes
component
NA
Yes
component
NA
Yes
demographic
Uncertain
Unclear
demographic
NA
Unclear
both
NA
Yes
both
NA
Yes
component
NA
cooperative
defense
cooperative
defense
cooperative
breeding and
defense
Yes
both
Strong
Yes
component
NA
blackbacked jackal
(Canis mesomelas)
bighorn sheep (Ovis
canadensis)
red-backed vole
(Clethrionomys
gapperi) and deer
mouse (Peromyscus
maniculatus)
carnivores
black-tailed prairie
dog (Cynomys
ludovicianus)
dwarf mongoose
(Helogale parvula)
dwarf mongoose
(Helogale parvula)
woodland caribou
(Rangifer tarandus
caribou)
mate limitation
cooperative
breeding and
defense
cooperative
breeding and
defense
cooperative
defense
predator satiation
cooperative
feeding or
cooperative
defense
dispersal,
reproduction
natural
experiment
harvest
Larkin et al.
2002
survival
observational
basic research
Malcolm and
Marten 1982
survival
observational
basic research
survival
observational
conservation
Moehlman 1979
Mooring et al.
2004
population
dynamics
observational
basic research
Morris 2002
observational
basic research
Munoz-Duran
2002
basic research
Pauli and
Buskirk 2007
extinction
population
dynamics,
reproduction
natural
experiment
survival
observational
basic research
Rasa 1989
survival
observational
basic research
Rood 1990
predator satiation
population
dynamics
observational
conservation
Wittmer et al.
2005
cooperative
breeding
reproduction
observational
basic research
Balshine et al.
2001
Fish
cichlid
(Neolamprologus
pulcher)
coho salmon
(Oncorhynchus
kisutch)
coho salmon
(Oncorhynchus
kisutch) and sockeye
salmon (O. nerka)
Eurasian ruffe
(Gymnocepha-lus
cernuus)
many species
sardine (Sardinops
sagax)
many species
blue chromis
(Chromis cyanea)
andean catfish
(Astroblepus
ubidiai)
many species
Atlantic salmon
(Salmo salar)
blue-headed wrasse
(Thalassoma
bifasciatum Bloch)
Juvenile salmon
(three species)
Birds
Unclear
demographic
NA
predator satiation
population
dynamics
observational
harvest
Barrowman et al.
2003
Yes
demographic
Strong
predator satiation
population
dynamics
observational
harvest
Chen et al. 2002
Unclear
demographic
NA
population
dynamics
natural
experiment
invasive
Drake 2005b
Unclear
demographic
NA
none
predator satiation
or mate
limitation
population
dynamics
observational
harvest
Yes
demographic
Uncertain
observational
harvest
Unclear
demographic
observational
harvest
Yes
observational
basic research
observational
conservation
observational
harvest
Liermann and
Hilborn 1997
MoralesBojorquez and
NevarezMartinez 2005
NA
none
mate limitation
or predator
satiation
population
dynamics
depensation
(reduced
recruitment)
component
NA
predator satiation
survival
Yes
demographic
Uncertain
Yes
both
Uncertain
unknown
cooperative
defense
population
dynamics
population
dynamics
Yes
component
NA
predator satiation
survival
manipulation
conservation
Ward et al. 2008
Yes
component
NA
predator satiation
survival
observational
basic research
White 2007
Yes
component
NA
predator satiation
survival
observational
harvest
Wood 1987
Myers et al. 1995
Sandin and
Pacala 2005
Velez-Espino
and Fox 2005
Walters and
Kitchell 2001
Bi-colored wren
(Campylorhynchus
griseus)
Common Guillemot
(Uria Aalge)
Hutton's shearwater
(Puffnus huttoni)
white-fronted beeeaters (Merops
bullockoides)
black-browed
albatross
(Thalassarche
melanophris)
white-winged
chough (Corcorax
melanorhamphos)
dunlin (Calidris
alpina)
Chatham Island
taiko (Pterodroma
magentae)
Bonelli's eagle
(Hieraaetus
fasciatus)
damselfish
(Pomacentrus
amboinensis)
Florida scrub jay
(Aphelocoma c.
coerulescens)
Audouin’s gull
(Larus audouinii)
Stripe-backed wrens
(Campylorhynchus
nuchalis)
Yes
component
NA
Yes
component
NA
cooperative
breeding and
defense
cooperative
defense
Yes
both
Uncertain
Yes
component
NA
Yes
component
Weak
Yes
both
Uncertain
Unclear
both
Unclear
survival
observational
basic research
Austad and
Rabenhold 1985
observational
basic research
Birkhead 1977
predator satiation
survival
fitness,
reproduction,
survival
observational
conservation
Cuthbert 2002
cooperative
breeding
survival
observational
basic research
Emlen and
Wrege 1991
Feeding (fitness
component)
observational
conservation
Grunbaum and
Veit 2003
survival
observational
basic research
Heinsohn 1992
NA
cooperative
feeding
cooperative
breeding and
defense
cooperative
defense
flocking
observational
basic research
Kelly 2001
component
NA
mate limitation
reproduction
observational
conservation
Lawrence et al.
2008
Yes
component
NA
unknown
reproduction
observational
conservation
Martinez et al.
2008
No
both
NA
fecundity and
larval size
manipulation
basic research
McCormick
2006
Yes
component
NA
survival
manipulation
basic research
Mumme 1992
Yes
component
NA
fecundity
observational
basic research
Oro et al. 2006
Yes
component
NA
growth (positive)
cooperative
breeding and
defense
cooperative
defense
cooperative
breeding and
defense
survival
observational
basic research
Rabenhold 1988
11 species
lesser kestrel (Falco
naumanni)
Montagu harrier
(Circus pygargus)
saddlebacks
(Philesturnus
carunculatus) and
New Zealand robins
(Petroica australis)
house finch
(Carpodacus
mexicanus)
population
dynamics
observational
basic research
observational
basic research
Saether et al.
1996
Serrano et al.
2005
observational
conservation
Soutullo et al.
2006
colonization
natural
experiment
conservation
Taylor et al.
2005
mate limitation
spread rate
natural
experiment
invasive
none
population
dynamics
natural
experiment
conservation
Unclear
demographic
NA
Yes
component
NA
none
cooperative
defense
Unclear
both
NA
unknown
survival
population
dynamics, rate of
spread
No
component
NA
none
Yes
demographic
Weak
No
demographic
NA
Veit and Lewis
1996
Reptiles
green sea turtle
(Chelonia mydas)
Hays 2004
A
- Mechanism is that suggested by the author and is not always directly supported by data. For example, multiple studies using large
datasets of fish dynamics base their expectation for Allee effects on different mechanisms.
*- Only two studies which implicate multiple Allee effects as causing a demographic Allee effect provide direct evidence for multiple
mechnisms
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