WISE USE OF TROPICAL PEATLAND – THE CASE FOR THE ORANGUTAN
Reconciling orangutan conservation and economic development – can this be
achieved?
Simon J. Husson1,2 and Helen C. Morrogh-Bernard1,2
1
Wildlife Research Group, School of Anatomy, University of Cambridge, UK
Orangutan and Tropical Peatland Research Project, CIMTROP, University of
Palangkaraya, Indonesia
2
Corresponding author: S. Husson, simon_husson@yahoo.com, +44 (0)1223 333753
Summary
Orangutans are endangered and their numbers continue to drop annually. Successful
conservation initiatives are desperately needed, particularly in peat swamp forest which is
their most important habitat. Successful conservation depends on local support and
involvement, but this is unlikely to be forthcoming as long as there is a perception that
orangutan conservation is in direct conflict with economic development of a region. The
potential benefits of conservation for local communities are discussed here and
Indonesian scientists and conservation managers are encouraged to pursue these
opportunities.
Keywords: Orangutan, Peat Swamp Forest, Community development, Ecotourism
Orangutan Conservation
The orangutan, Pongo spp., is believed to number around 60,000 wild individuals
(Singleton et al., 2004), but this number is falling rapidly as problems of illegal logging,
fire, forest conversions to oil palm and hunting are not being adequately controlled. The
global population is estimated to have halved in the last ten years (Singleton et al., 2004)
Many scientists estimate that no viable populations will be left in the world by the end of
this century unless urgent action is taken to protect this species (Rijksen and Meijaard,
1999). Great apes are mankind’s closest living relatives, sharing up to 98.5 % of our
DNA, and together with humans are unique in the animal world: both make and use tools;
employ plants for self-medication; experience a range of emotions and demonstrate moral
decision-making.
Orangutans are important for Indonesia, which is famous for its orangutans, on
international television and print media, and to the tourists who visit Kalimantan and
Sumatra to see this species. Eighty percent of the world’s orangutans are found in this
country. Indonesia has committed itself to protecting the orangutan, both through its
internal law and by signing the international GRASP treaty. GRASP, the Great Apes
Survival Project, is a unique alliance of all 23 great ape range countries, donor countries,
UNEP and UNESCO, NGO’s, academia and the private sector (Conrad et al., 2005). The
treaty, signed at the Intergovernmental Meeting on Great Apes held in Kinshasa,
Democratic Republic of the Congo from 5-9 September 2005, pledges to support and
implement effective measures to counter the threats facing the great apes. The treaty
encouraged the provision of long-term ecologically sustainable economic benefits to local
communities; and invited international institutions and agencies to prioritise policies
promoting ecologically sustainable livelihoods for local and indigenous communities
which prevent activities detrimental to the survival of the great apes. GRASP aims to use
funds provided by the UN, European Commission and individual donor countries to
support funding areas and regions that are currently neglected and underfunded.
Orangutans are distributed throughout most of Borneo and in the north of Sumatra (Fig.
1). They inhabit tropical rainforest, including dry dipterocarp-dominated forest,
freshwater swamp, limestone karst and submontane habitats. The most important habitat,
however, is peat swamp forest. The highest recorded orangutan densities are in this
habitat type, at Suaq Balimbing (Sumatra) and Gunung Palung (Kalimantan), and mean
peat swamp forest density (2.94 individuals per square kilometre, n=25) is significantly
higher (independent samples t-test, p=0.015) than density in dry lowland forest (1.96 ind
km –2, n=50) (Husson et al., 2006). Peat swamp forest supports a high density because
there is a stable, year-round supply of food, whereas freshwater swamp and dipterocarp
forests more typically provide huge amounts of fruit for part of the year with long periods
of fruit shortage in between. Thirty-five per cent of all orangutans occur in peat swamp
forest, and the largest remaining populations are found in this habitat (Singleton et al.,
2004). Therefore, protecting and restoring the most important areas of peat swamp forest
is crucial to protect the orangutan from extinction.
Importance of orangutan to local communities
Indigenous people, in those communities surrounding orangutan habitat areas, do not
prioritise orangutan conservation. In a study of local attitudes towards this species,
carried out in villages along the Sebangau and Katingan rivers, Smith (2002) found that
50% of local villagers thought that the orangutan’s future prospects were bad, but that
there was a general lack of concern for the species. Economic development of the area is
the main concern, with 70% of respondents considering the future prospects of their
community to be poor. Whilst many people regard orangutans as an asset to the area, it is
considered that protection of the species would bring no benefits.
Therefore we conclude that there is no perceived benefit to local communities from the
protection of orangutan. Nevertheless there are potential benefits, some direct, some more
abstract (Table 1). Although communities do not view protection of wildlife as a priority,
they do recognise other benefits of conserving and rehabilitating forest habitat. These
include maintaining a continuous income through the constant availability of forest
resources (i.e. they recognise the virtue of sustainable harvesting); providing protection
against floods and improving air quality (protection against fire and smoke pollution)
(Smith, 2002). It is also the case that peat swamp forest is not a suitable habitat for many
alternative uses, such as oil palm plantations and rice padi. Foreign governments
traditionally encourage conservation and habitat restoration activities through the
provision of loans to developing countries and trade agreements. These economic
benefits theoretically support all citizens of a country. Increasingly, foreign governments
and international NGO’s are providing funding for in-situ habitat conservation activities,
to directly mitigate the problems highlighted by local communities (above), or helping to
introduce and develop environmentally-sustainable livelihoods and economic
development. Many of these grants are focused specifically on orangutans, i.e.
organisations will provide grants if there is a demonstrated benefit for orangutan
conservation. The Great Ape Conservation Fund has been established by the government
of the United States of America for this purpose - 1.5 million dollars is set aside each
year for projects that aid great ape conservation. In the field this has meant funding for
environmental education, habitat restoration and rehabilitation, scientific research and
illegal logging patrols amongst a wide range of projects. International NGO’s such as The
Nature Conservancy, The World Wide Fund for Nature and Conservation International
promote endangered species, including the orangutan, for their fund-raising, with
campaigns such as ‘sponsor an orangutan’ raising millions of pounds in western
countries.
Funds and campaigns are targeted at the orangutan because of its status as a ‘flagship’
species, charismatic and well-known, and a symbol of endangered species world-wide.
Flagship species, such as the tiger, gorilla, whale and panda, arise passions amongst
people who consider that the world would be a poorer place without them and want to
help save them from extinction. Although this may be a moralistic, idealistic view of the
world, often out-of-touch with the economic realities of the regions where these species
are found, their donations may be used to improve the economic condition of these
regions and peoples, and if targeted correctly, benefit both the endangered species and
habitats and the local communities.
Of even greater potential economic benefit is ecotourism. Ecotourism is defined as
‘tourism activities in areas of natural habitat that have no negative impact on the
environment’ or, in conservation terms, ‘tourism activities that provide positive benefit
for the conservation of a natural resource, species or ecosystem’. In nearly all cases, such
positive benefit is the injection of funds into an area, through employment and into a trust
fund to be used for infrastructure development (schools, clinics); development of
naturally-sustainable livelihoods and habitat protection activities. Positive benefits can
also accrue from related education and research activities, changing local perceptions of
the resource or by fostering willingness to protect an area by the local and national
authorities. This model is already in place elsewhere in the world. Thousands of tourists
go on trips every year to see rare and charismatic animals in their natural habitat. Major
tourism ventures are centred on viewing wild tigers in India, mountain gorillas in Uganda
and Rwanda, great white sharks off the coast of South Africa, polar bears in Canada and
many species of whale world-wide. Many of these operations provide valuable income
for conservation. The potential is clearly there for a similar operation with orangutans.
Orangutan ecotourism is still undeveloped. 3000 tourists a year visit Tanjung Puting
National Park to see rehabilitated orangutans, more visited Bukit Lawang in North
Sumatra before the flash-floods of last year, and 10,000 tourists a year visit the
Kinabatangan River in Sabah to view orangutans from boats. Revenues from these
operations are small and mainly benefit tour operators. They are predominantly focused
on rehabilitation centres which do not provide the ‘wilderness experience’ desired by
many visitors. There are no opportunities to join a tour to see wild orangutans on foot.
Compare that to the situation in Africa where 10 years ago, before the civil war in the
Democratic Republic of Congo broke out, Virunga National Park, home of the famous
mountain gorillas, was generating $10 million a year from ecotourism. The Ugandan
government sells chimpanzee tracking permits for $220 and twenty-four $360 gorillawatching permits a day and are sold out two years in advance (Ugandan Wildlife
Authority, 2006). Hence over 3 million dollars a year is raised by the government of
Uganda from the mountain gorillas alone, of which a substantial proportion supports
development and welfare of communities surrounding the ape habitat. As a result,
Uganda currently has one of the best primate conservation records in the developing
world. The potential is there for a similar enterprise in Indonesia – if the infrastructure,
marketing, a profit-sharing mechanism and – importantly – a system of regulation and
proper management are put in place.
Conclusions
Orangutan conservation depends on protection and restoration of peat swamp forest
habitat. Protecting peat swamp forest habitat depends on the support of local government,
institutions and communities. Hence, orangutan conservation is not possible without the
support of local people. As described here, this can be difficult to achieve as local
communities, quite rightly, place their economic livelihoods as most important, and the
general perception is that conservation is in direct conflict with maintaining and
improving their standard of life. Conservation and development can be mutually
reinforcing if the potential economic benefits of orangutan conservation are understood
and taken up. Many grant-giving bodies are eager to support orangutan conservation
projects, particularly in important but underfunded regions and over long time periods.
We encourage Indonesian scientists, conservation managers and government institutions
to pursue these opportunities in order to successfully protect their peat swamp forests,
and educate local residents of the positive benefits of conservation.
References
Caldecott, J. and Miles, L. (eds) (2005) World Atlas of Great Apes and their
Conservation. Prepared at the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. University
of California Press, Berkeley, USA
Conrad, A., Gordon, L. and Goree VI, L.J. (eds) (2005) A summary report of the
Intergovernmental Meeting on Great Apes and first Council
Meeting for the Great Apes Survival Project (GRASP). Great Apes Survival Bulletin
Volume 113 (1). International Institute for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg, Canada.
Husson, S. J., Ancrenaz, M., Brassey, R., Gumal, M., Hearn, A., Marshall, A., Meijaard,
E., Morrogh-Bernard, H., Saleh, C., Simorangkir, T., Singleton, I. and Wich, S. (2006)
Distribution and Density of the ‘Four’ Orangutans. Abstract. Presented at the
International Primatological Society General Congress, Entebbe, Uganda 24-29 June
2006
Rijksen, H. D. and Meijaard, E. (1999) Our Vanishing Relative: The Status of Wild
Orang-utans at the Close of the Twentieth Century. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
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Rosen, N., Traylor-Holzer, K., Lacy, R. and Byers, O. (eds) (2004) Orangutan Population
and Habitat Viability Assessment: Final Report. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding
Specialist Group, Apple Valley, MN, USA.
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Swamp Forests, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia: Demography, Attitudes and Impacts.
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Fig. 1 Current orangutan distribution, identifying locations of peat swamp forest habitat.
Base map from Caldecott & Miles (2005)
Table 1: Potential benefits to local communities from conservation projects and funding
sources.
Type
Research projects
Grants for habitat
restoration
Grants for habitat
protection
Grants for developing
alternative livelihoods
Grants for environmental
education
Educational links and
training
Inter-governmental loans,
trade agreements and
carbon-trading
Ecotourism
Benefit to conservation
Discovery; Monitoring; Capacity
building
Improve degraded habitat;
Protect against catastrophic
events (e.g fire)
Reduce uncontrolled exploitation
of habitat and illegal activities
Reduce uncontrolled exploitation
of habitat; Provide alternative
income to local communities
Increase understanding of
conservation and negative
impacts of habitat degradation
Capacity building; Knowledge
base for future
Increase government willingness
to protect habitat
Benefit to communities
Employment; Support industries (e.g.
transport, food)
Employment; Protect against floods;
Improve air quality; Conserve natural
forest products
Employment; Prevent ‘outsiders’
depleting resource
Economic development; Sustainable
livelihoods
Employment; Increase understanding
of the benefits of conservation;
Develop pride in habitat and species
Presence of local, trustworthy experts
Economic development theoretically
benefits all citizens
Reduce uncontrolled exploitation Employment; Support industries;
of habitat; Provide alternative
Economic development; Profitincome to local communities
sharing; Infrastructure development;
Develop pride in habitat and species