UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, IRVINE
Department of Education
EDUCATION173:
Learning Theory andClassroomPractices
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ONLINE LECTURE #4
LEARNING THEORIES IN PRACTICE
Introduction ][ Models ofLearning ][ Social Learning Theories]
[Cognitive Theories ][ ConstructivistTheories ][ Multiple Intelligences ]
[Collaborative and Cooperative Learning ][Additional References]
"While working on Frames of Mind, I viewed it principally as acontribution to my own
discipline of developmental psychology and, more generally, to the behavioral and
cognitive sciences. I wanted to broaden conceptionsof intelligence to include not only the
results of paper-and-penciltestsbut also knowledge of the human brain and sensitivity to
the diversityof human cultures. Although I discussed the educationalimplicationsof the
theory,...my eyes were not beamed to the classroom. Infact,however, the book has exerted
considerable influence in educational quarters."Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The
Theory of MultipleIntelligences,1993
Your reading for this lecture was Chapters 7, 8 and 9 in the text, EducationalPsychology, by
Elliott et al. We expect you will use the text todevelop,review and update your knowledge of
theories of learning and teaching,as fits your needs. Your primary learning experiences will also
includeexploring the concepts in the text, and their applications, usingInternetand World Wide
Web resources, including those that are hot links within the lecture.
INTRODUCTION
In this lecture, we will examine learning theories in practice. Wewill address several especially
important implications of learning theories for classroom instruction. It is not possible to cover
all of thematerial in the three chapters in this lecture, so topics have been selected tha tare
particularly relevant to enhancing teacher effectiveness. Some of the more discussed in other
chapters of the text, as well as in the three cited above, and this additional material is easy to
locate using the text index.
The first topic we will explore is different models of learning and their implications for teaching.
Behaviorist, social learning,information processing, constructivist and humanistic theories each
have distinct--and different -- implications for teaching. Most of these models apply under some
circumstances and to some children.
The next topics we will deal with are concepts of intelligence and theimplications for the
classroom of individual differences in learning strengths and weaknesses. We will examine in
depth the work of Howard Gardner onMultiple Intelligences and will identify many resources for
developing and understanding of the unique needs of gifted and talented students and those with
disabilities.
We will also examine some concepts that have been found to beespecially important in achieving
high-quality teaching. One of these is metacognition,or helping students think about their own
learning -- metacognition. The second concerns enhancing student learning through cooperative
and collaborative activities.
These lecture notes are derived in part from the text, EducationalPsychology: Effective
Teaching, Effective Learning 2nd edition, byS. Elliott, T. Kratochwill, J. Littlefield, and J.
Travers (Brown andBenchmarkPublishers, Dubuque, IA: 1996).
MODELS OF LEARNING AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FORTEACHING
Three Views of Learning
Western intellectual tradition embodies three different views oflearning.One emphasizes learning
as a process of acquiring information and skillsthat are taught directly to the learner. The second
emphasizes learningas a process of interaction between the individual and the physical andsocial
world through which knowledge is constructed. The thirdemphasizesthe emergence of self and
knowledge from within -- with the primary roleof the environment being to enhance the
individual's ability to grow.
Focus Area #1: Theories of Learning
Based on what you have learned in this class to date:
1. Describe the theory of learning that you consider most relevant to your teaching.
2. Describe an instructional activity that is consistent with this theory of learning.
3. Do you think any one theory of learning is, (or will be) most useful forguiding your
teaching; or that an eclectic use of several theories will be most useful?
BEHAVIORISM AND NEOBEHAVIORISM
The behavioristand neobehaviorist schools of thought focus on overt behavior rather than what
occurs inside the mind. They look at whether students achievestated learning objectives. The
principles of learning that areintegratedin this approach include:
1. Behavior expected upon completion of learning is clearly defined;
2. Feedback and reinforcement are essential to student learning;
3. Learning tasks are arranged in a hierarchy from simple to complex;
4. Mastery of basic learning tasks is necessary before advancing to morecomplextasks;
5. Individuals are rewarded for correct responses but not for incorrect, orpartially correct
answers.
In the behaviorist classroom, desired behaviors are reinforced. This may include use of
intangible reinforcement such as recognition and praiseor tangible reinforcement such a grades,
awards and privileges.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
Social learning, as described by AlbertBandura, deals with the fact that a fundamental means of
learning isthrough observing and imitating of models. This theory is behaviorist due to Bandura's
emphasis on the fact that individuals learn to imitate a behaviorbecause they are reinforced for
that behavior.
Teachers serve as models who shape and influence their students'behavior.Books, pictures,
television and movies also present models to childrenand adolescents.
An important tenet of Bandura's theory is that exposure to highlyesteemedmodels can alter
students' attitudes. That is, social learning through imitation can significantly modify students'
behavior and help themacquireskills.
Focus Area #2: Using Behavioral Theories in theClassroom
1. What might be a situation in which teaching using principles ofreinforcementand
reward would be the most successful approach?
2. Describe how you could use the principles of social learning theory toimprove student
behavior in your classroom.
3. If an individual said to you that there is no place for behaviorism ineducational practice,
what would your response be? Why?
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Two different sets of theories fit within the cognitive modelthat focuses on what occurs within
the child's mind in the process oflearning.The two are information processing theories and
constructivisttheories.
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES
During the 1940s, many psychologists and "cognitive scientists"becameimpatient with
behaviorist views that did not deal with the brain andwithhigher-level, problem-solving
processes. Questions about human language,planning, problem solving and imagination could
not be addressed withinbehaviorist theory.
One of the first information processing theorists, HerbertSimon, drew an analogy between the
computer and human mentalprocesses.Since that time, information processing models have
looked at the humanlearner as a processor of information in much the same way a
computeris.Information is "input" from the environment. It is processed and storedin memory
and then can later be "output" through a search and retrievalprocess.
Cognitive information processing theorists have helped to conceptualize the processes of
attention, memory and learning. They emphasize that learning results from interaction between
the environment and the learner's previous experiences and knowledge.
According to information processing theorists, learning is a matter of constructing meaning
about our environment based on prior knowledge.In order for information to be processed, it
must be connected toexisting ideas. The term "schema" is used, much as in Jean Piaget's theory,
toreferto existing mental constructs through which new information is processed.
Information Processing theories hold several implications for the classroom, including the
following teacher practices that generally enhance children's success in learning:

Gain the students' attention -- This might be done by using cues to signal that it is time to
begin or meaningfully varying voice and voice inflections.
Bring to mind relevant prior learning -- This might involve discussing something
students already know that is relevant to the topic they will be studying or relevant to
reviewing a previous day's lesson.

Point out what is important to recognize and know -- Using visual representations or
outlining the key concepts in a unit of study are examplesof how this can be done.

Present information in an organized manner -- Making it easy for students to see the
structure of a unit and helping them to see relationships between different concepts helps
in implement this approach.

Show students how to categorize information -- Showing students how to categorize new
information and having them develop their own categorizing systems helps them process
information.

Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information-- Having students
work with and apply new information and enabling themto make links to other
knowledge helps create the mental connections that are fundamental to learning.
Each of these principles reflects two fundamental points within information
processing
theories. First, learning is an active process of theindividual'sconstructing new mental
representations or modifying existing ones.Second,these processes can be significantly enhanced
through strategies forteachingand for organizing the environment that facilitates acquiring
andprocessingnew information.
David Ausubel'sMeaningful Reception Theoryis particularlyimportantfor effective teaching. This
theory, developed over 30 years ago, andmorecurrent approaches to learning concern meaningful
learning how students learn large amounts of meaningful material from teacher presentations
within school settings. Ausubel, and others after him, focused on the fact that learning occurs
when new material is related to relevant ideas in the student's existing cognitive structure --
thatis, by linking new information to the learner's prior knowledge.
Advance organizersis a valuable instructional tool proposed by Ausubel which has been used
effectively by teachers for many years .Organizers help to link new learning material with
existing related ideas and to focus attention on meaningful learning. An advance organizer canbe
a video clip, a discussion, a concept map -- something that will help tie a new concept to an idea
a student has already mastered. Ausubel'sconcepts fit within the direct instruction tradition, and
draw upon teacher-centered instructional strategies.
Return to the start of this lecture
CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES
Constructivisttheories are based on the premise that individuals learn as a resultof their personal
generation of meaning from experiences. The teacher'srole is to help generate connections
between what is to be learned andwhat the individual already knows or believes. Among the
primaryconstructivisttheorists are Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, whose work we examined
inLecture#2.
Constructivist theories emphasize that prior knowledge plays animportantrole in an individual's
efforts to learn new information. They alsoemphasizethe importance of a broad set of
experiences with the physical andsocialworld in order for learning to occur. A number of
constructivisttheoriesapplications are presented below:
Constructivism in Practice
Discovery Learning
Discovery learning is an approach to instruction where studentsexploreand manipulate objects in
their environment, solve questions andproblems,perform experiments, and develop an
understanding of what they arestudyingthrough active exploratory learning. Learning materials
are carefullystructuredin order that they will provide students with experiences that help
themdiscover underlying ideas, concepts or patterns.
Many examples of a concept are presented in order that a learner canmake generalizations based
upon a number of specific examples ofexperiences.Problems are posed to students for them to
find the answer andactivitiesare developed for them to apply new learning to many
differentsituationsand kinds of problems. Sometimes these problems are solved alone,
butfrequentlythey are solved by learners together.
Many of the learning practices now to teach elementary science andmathematicsare consistent
with a discovery learning approach. In teaching"hands-on,minds-on" science, for example,
students have the opportunity toconstructtheir own knowledge of the world through exploration
andexperimentation.In solving problems that apply mathematical concepts and
incommunicatingtheir mathematical understanding, they need to construct
mathematicalmeaning.
Reading
Constructivist theories provide important insight into the nature ofthe reading process. Reading
is theconstruction of meaning through interaction with text. This occursbased on readers' existing
or prior knowledge about the world. Theimportanceof priorknowledge in reading has been
demonstrated in studies that show thatreaders understand what they read largely in relation to
what theyalreadyknow.
Overall prior knowledge can be expanded continually through a varietyof means, including
extensive reading and writing. The more studentsreadand write, the more their prior knowledge
grows which, in turn,strengthenstheir ability to construct meaning as they read. Expert readers
havestrategiesthat they use to construct meaning before, during and after reading.
A Subject Area Example: Living History
"Living History" is another example of the applied constructivistprinciples.In students' learning
of history, they engage in re-enactments, roleplayingand simulation. The idea is for them to
experience the events andcontextin a way as close to its reality as possible. By participating
directlyin historical events, they have the kind of active learning experiencesthat enable them to
find meaning. They are able to understand andanalyzehistorical topics in deeper, more
meaningful ways. Through their ownexperiencesof the challenges and problems faced at various
times by groups and byindividuals, historical events become personally meaningful to them.
Active Thinking About Thinking: Metacognition
Metacognition refers both to the knowledge that individuals haveabouttheir own cognitive
processes and to their intentional regulation oftheircognitive processes to maximize learning and
memory. When usingmetacognitiveknowledge, individuals think about how they will manage a
task. Theyanalyzewhat is required and how they are doing and then consider
alternatestrategies.This monitoring one's progress toward a goal requires thinking aboutone'sown
thought processes and about adjustments needed in them. As anexample,using metacognition
enables us to reflect on how well we understandsomethingand to decide what to do if we
recognize that our understanding isincomplete.This active cognitive process is consistent with
the meaning-makingelementsemphasized in constructivist views of learning-- in this case,
appliedto one's own thoughts.
CRITICAL THINKING
Fostering criticalthinkingon the part of students is an important educational objective across
allsubject areas and grade levels. It has been defined by cognitivepsychologistRobert Sternberg
as comprising "the mental processes, strategies, andrepresentationspeople use to solve problems,
make decisions, and learn new concepts."
In essence, critical thinking is reflective thought and reasoningthatis focussed on making
decisions, often ones that involve important valuedimensions. Critical thinking is the cognitive
tool that enablesindividualsto adapt to change. It consists of the thinking skills that
promotethoughtful,considered judgements based on available evidence and to act on
them.Linksto several World Wide Web sites that can help teachers foster criticalthinking are
found at the end of this lecture.
HUMANISTIC THEORIES
Humanistic theories primarily focus on issues of students' affect,self-concept,self-esteem and
needs. They see learning as a result of positive effectand motivation and satisfaction of needs.
They emphasize students'individualuniqueness and the importance of goals, aspirations andselfdeterminationfor success. The work of Abraham Maslow, one of the major
humanisticpsychologists,is discussed in Lecture #6, Motivation in the Classroom.
Focus Area #3: Applying Cognitive Theories
1. How might you apply information processing theory in yourclassroom?
2. How could you use the concept of advance organizers in a lesson on aspecifictopic and
at a designated grade level?
3. Give an example of an instructional activity you could use in your ownclassroom that
reflects the principles of constructivism.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY
There are a number of different conceptions of intelligence, asdiscussedin the text, and different
definitions of the term. Definitions tend toemphasize the global capacity of a person to act
purposefully, to thinkanalytically, and to deal effectively with his or her environment and
toemphasize the capacity to learn from experience to adapt to one'senvironment.
In this lecture, we will not examine psychometric views ofintelligence,those developed by such
individuals as Binet and Wechsler, whose IQtestsare well known. While there are other
important intelligence theorists,we will focus on the work of HowardGardner and on his
MultipleIntelligences Theory .
Gardner emphasized that intelligence entails several different setsof skills for problem-solving
that enable the individual to resolvegenuineproblems. He also placed emphasis on intelligence as
the ability toacquirenew knowledge and to excel and create new intellectual products acrossa
broad range of different spheres of activities.
Gardner defined seven different types of intelligences, although healso indicated that there may
be more types. In fact, he has recentlywrittenabout "naturalist"intelligence, (when students have
an understanding of nature, makingdistinctions and identifying natural patterns and events)
which heconsidersto represent an eighth important type of intelligence.
THE SEVEN INTELLIGENCES
In defining sevendifferent types of intelligences, Gardner emphasized the point thatwhat is
important is not how intelligent are you but ratherhoware you intelligent. His work has made
clear to educators in theU.S.and abroad that individuals have patterns of strengths and
weaknessesandthat creating learning environments responsive to these profiles is akeyto success
among all students. The seven types of intelligences aredescribedbelow.
Verbal/LinguisticIntelligence
Verbal/linguistic intelligence is related to words andlanguage-- written and spoken -- and to a
considerable degree dominateseducationin the U.S. It refers to the production of language in all
of its manyways. It consists of the ability to think in words and to use languageto express and
appreciate complex meanings. Authors, poets andjournalistsare examples of individuals who
tend to have high linguisticintelligence.
Logical/MathematicalIntelligence
Logical/mathematical intelligence is often called "scientificthinking" and deals with thinking and
reasoning deductively andinductivelywith numbers, and with the ability to deal with abstractions.
It makesit possible to calculate, quantify, consider propositions andhypotheses,and carry out
complex mathematical operations. Scientists,mathematiciansand computer programmers are
people who tend to demonstrate highlogical/mathematicalintelligence.
Visual/SpatialIntelligence
Visual/spatial intelligence is the capacity to think spatiallyas is required by sailors, pilots,
sculptors, painters and architects.It enables one to perceive visual imagery, to re-create,
transform ormodifyimages ,and to navigate through space. It is seen in activities thatrequirethe
ability to visualize objects from different perspectives. It relieson the ability to visualize an
object from multiple perspectives. Itincludesthe capacity to create internal mental images and
pictures.
Bodily/KinestheticIntelligence
Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence refers to control of one'sbodyand of objects, to sensitivity to
movement and body language. It relatesto physical movement and to "knowing" the movements
of one's body,includingthe brain's motor cortex, which controls bodily motion. It is theabilityto
use the body in diverse ways, including learning by doing. There is,for example, knowledge in
our "fingertips" about keyboarding skills andmany other types of knowledge that are
bodily/kinesthetic. These typesof knowledge enable individuals such as athletes, dancers,
surgeons andcraftspeople to succeed in their fields and create unique artisticproducts.
MusicalIntelligence
Musical intelligence refers to the capacities to recognize anduse rhythmic and tonal patterns, and
to sensitivity to sounds frommusicalinstruments, the human voice, nature and the environment. It
is seen inindividuals who possess an unusual sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythmand tone.
Individuals demonstrating this type of intelligence typicallyinclude composers, conductors,
musicians, singers and others who workwithmusic and musical instruments.
InterpersonalIntelligence
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand andinteractsuccessfully with others. It refers
to the ability to work cooperativelyin a group as well as the ability to communicate, verbally
andnon-verbally,with other people. It builds on the capacity to notice distinctionsamongothers in
moods, temperament, motivations and intentions. People who arehigh in interpersonal
intelligence typically have genuine empathy forothers'feelings, fears, concerns and beliefs. This
type of intelligence isusuallyfound in counselors, teachers, therapists and others in the
"helpingprofessions."
IntrapersonalIntelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence is knowledge of the internalaspectsof one's self, including feelings,
emotions and thinking processes. Itrelates to self-reflection, to consciousness of ourselves, and
tounderstandingour self-identity. Individuals who are high in intrapersonalintelligenceare able to
construct an accurate perception of themselves. They areableto use this knowledge in planning
and directing their lives. Individualswith strong intrapersonal intelligence may select fields such
asphilosophyor theology which deal with issues of one's inner reality.
Gardner's work on multipleintelligences has had a profound impact in schools and
classrooms,where there is now an attempt to address the learning strengths ofstudentswith
varying intelligences. Across the nation, attention has been givento increasing the variety of
instructional procedures and classroomactivities.Multimedia instruction (e.g., CD-ROM,
videodisc, World Wide Web) isincreasinglyseen as a vehicle for drawing upon several different
intelligences,includinglinguistic intelligence (through narration), visual/spatial
intelligence(through imagery), and musical intelligence (through sound). This
cansupplementsuch things as hands-on learning, which also draws
uponbodily/kinestheticintelligence and collaborative learning, expanding the
intelligencesinvolvedto include intrapersonal intelligence.
Several additional sites on the World Wide Web give additionalinformationabout multiple
intelligences and their applications to the classroom andare listed at the end of this lecture.
Focus Area #4: Multiple Intelligences
1. Give an example of a skill or talent that illustrates each of the seventypes of
intelligences.
2. What is an example of how you could use multimedia to address a numberof the
intelligences in teaching a particular concept?
3. Assume you have a student who is strong in visual/spatial intelligencebut weak in
verbal/linguistic intelligence. What are some learningactivitiesthat would enable them
to build upon their strong visual/spatial skillsin building up their weaker
verbal/linguistic skills?
Individual Differences in Learning
Including and going beyond multiple intelligences, there are manywaysin which individuals'
learning aptitudes differ. Some students are gifted;others have
disabilitiesgopher://inet.ed.gov:12002/7waissrc%3a/Eric?Disabilitiesthat affect their learning. A
student may be gifted in some areasandhave learning difficulties in others. These topics are dealt
with inChapter6 of the text. Many additional sources of information about childrenwith special
needs are contained on the World Wide Web at the sitesidentified at the end of the lecture.
Return to the start of this lecture
COLLABORATIVE LEARNING AND COOPERATIVE LEARNING
At the same time we have come to recognize the many different ways inwhichindividuals learn,
educators in the U.S. have begun to embrace collaborativeand cooperative learning approaches.
Both of these emphases reflectnew views of learners and changes in our society. We are moving
from anindividual, competitive ethos in schools with a narrow definition ofintelligenceand
academic proficiency to a broader view that emphasizes multiplestrengthsand collaboration. This
mirrors changes in the nation's major industriesduring the past decade.
Collaborative Learning
Collaborativelearning is a general term that refers to students working togetherto solve problems,
typically complex ones that require active studentexploration.Some students might collect data
on an environmental hazard while otherslook at the laws relating to the hazard. They work
together as a groupto come up with solutions to meaningful problems.
Typically,collaborativelearning groups are composed of heterogeneous groups of students
whovaryin ability levels and expertise, with the groups drawing on thestrengthsof each of the
members.
Studies have shown many benefitsof collaborative learning in enhancing student outcomes
ofschooling.In the process of collaborating, students hear others' points of viewandexplain their
own contributions, frequently enhancing the quality oftheirthought. Collaborative work has
generally been shown to increase studentmotivation. Students are more motivated because they
enjoy workingtogetherand because most collaborative tasks give them more control over
theirlearning -- with the opportunity to make decisions about the roles thevarious students will
perform.
Cooperative Learning
Cooperativelearning has a more specific meaning than collaborative learning. Itrefers to a
teaching strategy in which small teams, typically withstudentsof different ability levels,
undertake carefully planned learningactivities.Each member of a team is responsible not only for
learning what istaught,but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating a shared
atmosphereemphasizing achievement.
Benefitsof cooperative learning that have been shown in research includeimprovedacademic
achievement, increased self-confidence and motivation, andincreasedliking of school and
classmates. In addition, cooperativelearning strategies have been shown to be relatively easy
toimplementand to have such added benefits as increased critical thinking skillsandteamwork
among students, more positive relations among different ethnicgroups, and improved behavior
and attendance.
There are several strategies for cooperative learning that can beusedwith any subject and at
almost any grade level. These strategies aredescribed,along with related information on
implementating cooperative learning,in the Web sites listed at the end of this lecture.
NEW VIEWS OF LEARNING AND OF LEARNERS
During the past several years, there have been significant changes intheories of learning and in
our understanding of individual learners. Wehave learned that students must construct their own
knowledge and thateach student brings a profile of intelligences that is distinct. Whilethese new
views are extremely important, older understandings aboutteachingand learning are still highly
relevant.
For some students under some circumstances, a highly structuredapproachto learning that
provides reinforcement for success is the mosteffectivestrategy. For other students, a studentcentered environment in whichopportunitiesare created for meaningful student exploration and
discovery are mosteffective.An effective teacher is able to use a variety of strategies in
differentsituations that fit with the environment and the needs and abilities ofthe learners.
Summing It All Up

Please summarize in a brief (approximately 1 page) outline the importantpoints
discussed above.

Identify a topic you might teach in the subject area and grade level atwhich you teach
or plan to teach. How could you incorporate five of theseven types of intelligences
described by Gardner in teaching thistopic?

Select a subject area and grade level and indicate how you could usecollaborativeor
cooperative learning in a classroom activity you want toconduct.
We expect you will spend a good deal of your time in this courseexploringadditional materials
and applications related to principles of learning-- including those available on the Internet and
the World Wide Web.Pleasetry to find time to visit as many of the hot links listed
onLectureFour as possible and share your experiences with your Collaborative WorkGroup and
with the Ed. 173 Listserv at ed173onl@olympia.gse.uci.edu.
We value your sharing your ideas with the rest of the class, helpingit to become a true
community of learners, by sending e-mail messages tothe Ed. 173 Discussion Group at
ed173onl@olympia.gse.uci.edu.If you are experiencing any problems in taking the course or if
you wanthelp in ensuring that it is meeting your needs, please send us a messageat
ed173ins@olympia.gse.uci.edu.We want to remind you of the "any time" office hours at this
address andthat we look forward to hearing from you.
ADDITIONAL REFERENCESFOR:
| MULTIPLEINTELLIGENCES |COLLABORATIVE AND COOPERATIVE LEARNING
| CRITICAL THINKING |GIFTEDAND TALENTED |
STUDENTS WITHDISABILITIES
MULTIPLEINTELLIGENCES
TheTheory of Multiple Intelligences and Educational Reform
MultipleIntelligences Theory
MultipleIntelligences Strategies
AnInterview With Howard Gardner
Gardner'sMultiple Intelligences: A Summary
MultipleIntelligences: A Brief Overview
TheResearch Results of a Multiple Intelligences Classroom
MultipleWays of Knowing: Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple IntelligencesExtendsand
Enhances Student Learning
MultipleIntelligences in the Mathematics Classroom
ERICAbstracts on Multiple Intelligences
UsingThe World Wide Web To Implement Multiple Intelligences
Writingand Multiple Intelligences
MultipleIntelligences Theory At An Elementary School
MultipleIntelligences Resource Guide From A K-6 Public School
MultipleIntelligences As Discussed By 7th Grade Students
HarvardProject Zero: Application of Multiple Intelligences Theory
MultipleIntelligences Theory
COLLABORATIVEAND COOPERATIVE LEARNING
CooperativeLearning: A Brief Overview
CooperativeLearning Research
CooperativeLearning: Selected ERIC Abstracts
CooperativeLearning At A Primary School
Usingthe Internet for Collaborative Learning (K -8)
Computer-SupportedCollaborative Learning: Issues for Research
CRITICALTHINKING
CriticalThinking Community
ThinkQuestInternet Contest
CriticalThinking Skills
TeachingCritical Thinking
CriticalThinking: Curriculum Resource Center
CriticalThinking and Reading
Resourcesin Applying Critical Thinking to Reading
ReflectiveThought
Welcometo 21st Century Problem Solving
HolisticCritical Thinking Scoring Rubric
GIFTED AND TALENTEDSTUDENTS
NationalExcellence: A Case for Developing America's Talent
Giftedand Talented WWW Page
ERICClearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education
ERICDigests on Gifted and Talented Education
GiftedResources from ERIC
NationalResearch Center on the Gifted and Talented
Onthe Right Track: Gifted Education Resources
STUDENTS WITHDISABILITIES
TheIndividualswith Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1995: On-lineResources
ERICClearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education
SpecialEducation: Effective Teaching Techniques
LearningDisabilities: Facts for Families
SpecialEducation Resources on the Internet (SERI)
disABILITYResources on the Internet
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[Introduction ][ Models ofLearning][SocialLearning Theories]
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