SPEECH VS WRITING
1. Takes place in context, which
1. Creates its own context and
often makes references clear
therefore has to be fully explicit
(e.g. 'that thing over there')
2. Speaker and listener(s) in con2. Reader not present and no intertact. Interact and exchange roles
action possible
3. Usually person addressed is
3. Reader not necessarily known to
specific
writer
4. Immediate feedback given and
4. No immediate feedback possible.
expected:
Writer may try to anticipate
a. verbal: questions, comments,
reader's reactions and incorporate
grunts, murmurs
them into text
b. non-verbal: facial expressions
5. Speech is transitory. Intended to 5. Writing is permanent. Can be
be understood immediately. If
reread as often as necessary and at
not, listener expected to interact
own speed
6. Sentences often incomplete and 6. Sentences expected to be carefully
sometimes ungrammatical.
constructed, and linked and
Hesitations and pauses common
organised to form a text
and usually some redundancy
and repetition
7. Range of devices (stress,
7. Devices to help convey meaning
intonation, pitch, speed) to help
are punctuation, capitals and
convey meaning. Facial expresunderlining (for emphasis).
sions, body movements and
Sentence boundaries clearly
gestures also used for this
indicated
purpose.
8. Universal, every-one can speak
8. Not every-one can write
9. Spontaneous and unplanned
9. Planned and takes time
10 Dialect variations commonly
10 Demands standard forms of
used
grammar, syntax, and vocabulary
11 Informal
11 Formal
PRODUCING A PIECE OF WRITING
SYNTAX
sentence structure,
sentence boundaries,
stylistic choices, etc.
CONTENT
relevance, clarity,
originality,
logic, etc.
GRAMMAR
rules of verbs
agreement,
articles,
pronouns, etc.
MECHANICS
handwriting,
spelling,
punctuation, etc.
ORGANIZATION
paragraphs,
topic and support,
cohesion and unity
Clear, fluent, and
effective communication
of ideas
THE WRITER’S
PROCESS
getting ideas,
getting started,
writing drafts,
revising
AUDIENCE
the reader/s
PURPOSE
the reason for
writing
WORD CHOICE
vocabulary,
idiom, tone
WHAT TO WRITE
PERSONAL
GENERAL
PUBLIC
OCCUPATIONAL
Memory aids:
Public signs:
Classification:
Specification:
a. Lists
- shopping
- packing
- jobs, etc.
- train times
- reminders
b. Personal
- address
- phone nos.
- shop names
- book names
- birthdays, etc.
c. Notes
- diaries
- recipes, etc.
Notices
Posters
Captions
Book indexes, Record
keeping, Dictionaries,
Recipes, Catalogues, etc.
Engineering plans,
Computer programmes,
Patent applications, etc.
Recorded information
Committee Minutes
Advertisements
Form filling:
Educational:
Study aids:
Lecture notes
Summaries
New vocabulary
Diary (journal)
Letters (personal)
Telegrams
Interpersonal:
Invitations,
Condolences,
Thanks, Birthday cards,
Christmas & Easter cards,
Valentines, etc.
Eye-witness account, etc.
Instructions and
Messages:
a. Receiver not present:
- with products
- to family,
- employees, others
b. Receiver present:
- in library
- lecture
- game (e.g. treasure
hunt)
Entertainment:
Word puzzles, skits,
songs, cartoon jokes,
games, etc.
Passports, Social
security, Customs,
Identity, Cheques,
Insurance, Bills,
House sales, Bank,
Computer dating, etc.
All subjects
- textbooks, essays,
- reports, manuals,
- handbooks,
- encyclopaedias
Note-taking:
By doctor, police
estate agent, dentist,
Applications:
Legal:
Letters, & Character
references
Letters (non-personal):
Orders, inquires, sale,
Complaints, Appeals, etc.
Contracts, Law reports,
Commentaries,
Instructions, Court
presentations
Debates
Speeches:
Letters, Reports,
Records,
Announcements,
Committee minutes,
Surveys, Stock lists,
Inventories, Bills,
Receipts, etc.
Speeches
Drama:
Conventions, Public
meetings, Interviews, etc.
Theatre, opera, film,
Notice Board items
(Auto)biography
Fiction (including comics)
Poetry and Songs
Menus
(personal)
Public Information:
a. Tourist
b. Banking
c. Transport
d. Journalism
- sport
- headlines
- weather
- news
- science, etc.
e. Government
- statutes
- regulations, etc.
Commercial:
Questionnaires:
Market research, Medical,
Census, etc.
Advertising:
Newspaper, Radio, TV,
Poster, Leaflets,
Brochures
Journalism:
Interviews
a. Articles
- obituary
- political
- horoscope, etc.
b. Reviews:
- theatre
- book
- records
- film
- concert, etc.
STUDENTS’ NEEDS
1. Teach the students how to write.
2. Provide adequate and relevant experience of the
written language.
3. Show the students how the written language
functions as a system of communication
4. Teach the students how to write texts.
5. Teach the students how to write different kinds
of texts.
6. Make writing tasks realistic and relevant.
7. Integrate writing with other skills.
8. Use a variety of techniques and practice formats.
9. Provide appropriate support.
10. Be sympathetic!
APPROACHES TO TEACHING
WRITING
THE CONTROLLED-TO-FREE APPROACH
Activities : Copying, Changing, Combining
Emphasis : Grammar - Syntax - Mechanics
Focus : Accuracy
THE FREE-WRITING APPROACH
Activities : Free writing with minimal correction of error
Emphasis : Content - Audience
Focus : Fluency
THE PARAGRAPH-PATTERN APPROACH
Activities : Copying, Imitating, Analyzing, Reordering,
Developing paragraph
Emphasis : Organization
Focus : Organization of paragraph
THE GRAMMAR-SYNTAX-ORGANIZATION APPROACH
Activities : Organizing and also choosing appropriate
grammar and vocab
Emphasis : Grammar - Syntax - Organization
Focus : Link purpose, form, and message
THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
Activities : Real life writing
Emphasis : Purpose - Audience
Focus : Communication
THE PROCESS APPROACH
Activities : Writing in unlimited time
Emphasis : Reader responds to the ideas
Focus : Discovery of new ideas and new language forms