Organic Farmers: Opportunities, Realities and Barriers
Dr. Leslie A. Duram
Department of Geography and Environmental Resources
Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901
duram@siu.edu, 618.536-3375
This paper is organized in four sections. First, the interface between geography and
agriculture will be described; second, an overview of the current research literature on organic
agriculture will be presented; third, research from my book, Good Growing: Why Organic
Farming Works (2005) will be described in detail; and finally, I will draw some general
conclusions about the realities of adopting organic agricultural techniques.
Geography and Agriculture
The discipline of Geography is commonly misunderstood to include only simple facts,
such as: “What is the capitol of Zimbabwe?” But, in fact, Geography includes much more, as
indicated by the roots of the word: GEO is EARTH and GRAPHY is TO DESCRIBE. So,
geographers describe the Earth through various means, including maps, data collection and
analysis, descriptive texts about landscapes, and in-depth spatial analysis through Geographic
Information Systems (GIS). Overall, geography deals with space and place; the interaction
between humans and the environment; and linkages between and among places. Because of this
comprehensive approach to research and concern for environmental sustainability, Geography is
particularly successful in the study of agricultural topics.
Within the broader concept of sustainable agriculture, one specifically defined methods is
certified organic farming. Data on U.S. organic agriculture is limited, as it was only recently
included in the US Census of Agriculture. Thus most data is based on research surveys and
informed estimates. For example, it is estimated that 1-7% of farmers use organic methods. In
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fact, certified organic cropland doubled in the 1990s and there are currently 2.34 million acres of
certified organic farmland in this country. Interestingly, there are significant variations among
crop types. Only 0.1% of corn and soybeans are certified organic, while 2% of specialty crops
such as lettuce, carrots, apples, and grapes are grown organically. Some specialty crops have
much higher levels of organic production, for example 30% of buckwheat and 37% of spelt are
certified organic crops (USDA-ERS 2001, 2002, and 2003).
Background Research
Previous research literature on organic agriculture may be best understood in two main
categories: Organic Production and Organic People. First, in terms of production research,
studies have focused on economics, production comparisons, and landscapes. Second, in terms
of people and society, organic research has addressed organic farmers, consumers of organic
products, and issues related to local food systems.
Research into comparisons between organic and conventional agricultural production
indicates that, in terms of profit, organic farming can be quite rewarding. Put simply, lower
input costs combined with price premiums, lead to higher profit margins (Smolik and Dobbs
1991, Batte et al. 1993). In a recent study conducted in the Corn Belt, organic methods yielded
the higher net returns than conventional production in 5 of 6 years (Illinois Stewardship Alliance
2002). In fruit and vegetable production, researchers found that organic methods led to similar
pest losses with significantly better tasting produce (Reganold et al. 2001; Letourneau &
Goldstein 2001).
Keep in mind that production comparisons are very complex. Are test plots or field
experiments conducted on university farms really comparable with long-term land management
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variables found on actual organic farms? Do researchers miss important on-farm management
variables when we conduct such university research? How do we accurately “match”
conventional and organic fields when we conduct comparisons? Research results show that in 30
cases of comparative observations of on-farm productivity, organic yields were higher than
conventional yields in 13 cases, were equal in 2 cases, and were lower in 15 cases, but this
variability was less than 20%. Overall, organic productivity is more reliable and higher yielding
in variable growing conditions, particularly drought (Pimentel et al., 2005, Mäder et al 2002,
Clark et al. 1999, Hanson et al. 1997, Stanhill 1990, Lockeretz et al., 1981).
Research investigating landscape assessment has been conducted in the European Union.
Through the EU’s Production Research Policy for Rural Sustainability, an assessment framework
draws from four categories: ecology, economy, social factors, and cultural geography. Studies
in several countries indicate that organic farms provide higher scores on these landscape
variables (Agriculture Ecosystem & Environment 2000). Other ecological research indicates that
soil quality is better on organically farmed land. In terms of topsoil depth, soil structure,
porosity, and other variables, organic methods lead to improved soil quality (Liebig and Doran
1998, Shepherd et al. 2002 ). Finally, biodiversity, as measured by bird and insect species, is
greater on organic farms than on conventional farms (Shutler et al. 2000, Blackburn & Arthur
2001).
Research into social issues related to organic farming begins with the farmers themselves.
Demographic characteristics show high variability, but in general, organic farmers tend to be
younger, have a higher level of formal education, and are more likely female, when compared to
conventional farmers (Lockeretz 1995, Egri 1999, Duram 2000). Many organic farmers
maintain a worldview that is distinct from their conventional counterparts. They have
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heightened ecological awareness, seek more alternatives, and are more independent (Beus and
Dunlap 1990, 1994, Duram 1997).
Another key social factor is organic consumers. Who buys organic food? This question
has never been fully answered, but there are a few key ideas to keep in mind. First, the organic
products market is growing at a phenomenal rate: 20% annually by many accounts; it was
approximately $9.3 billion in 2004. When ABC News conducted a poll in 2001, over half of all
U.S. consumers said that they prefer organic produce. Both the domestic and export market are
important for American farmers. USDA-ERS 2002; ABC NEWS 2001; Natural Foods
Merchandiser 2002).
Along with consumer demand for organic food generally, there is growing interest in
local organic food production and sales. Researchers have studied this issue and developed a
few interesting terms. First, a “food mile” is how far any food travels from farm to table—and
this is a staggering 1,800 miles, on average, in the US today. Many consumers what to reduce
food miles and eat locally produced foods. Second, a related concept is that of a “foodshed”
which, like a watershed, indicates that all food is produced and flows to consumers within one
region. In order to meet these increasing demands for local food, farmers are turning to
alternative means of marketing and sales. Farmers’ markets have been booming in the US and
continue to grow in number and popularity. Likewise Community Supported Agriculture (CSA)
is also increasing; this is a relationship in which consumer members buy “shares” to a farm
which then supplies them with produce throughout the growing season. Both farmers’ markets
and CSAs are making an important impact on organic farmers ability to connect with local
consumers.
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Current Research: Good Growing
Based on extensive research conducted for the book Good Growing: Why Organic
Farming Works, this paper presents an analysis of the following research question: What are the
main opportunities and barriers for organic farmers? This research employed a mixed methods
analysis, through which five case study farms were studied to represent a broad distribution
across U.S. agriculture. Organic farms in California, Colorado, Florida, Illinois, and New York
were used as case studies of both production and social concerns related to organic production.
These farms, or specifically the farmers, are each very special and unique, as the California
farmer is an expert at marketing organic vegetables at the regional scale; this Colorado farm
family has been producing grains on the land for five generations; the Florida growers are very
proud of the high quality of their citrus crops; in Illinois we see an example of a highly
diversified farm that is truly unique in the Corn Belt region; and in upstate New York, the farmer
developed a huge CSA within an ever-changing operation that included livestock, feed grains
and organic vegetables.
On-farm visits and extensive interviewing was key to this research. This analysis was
based on a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative methods include:
recording, transcribing, and coding themes from the interviews. This coding allowed for crosscase comparisons, through which generalizations were discovered (Agar 1980, Abbott 1992,
Miles & Huberman 1994, Duram 2000). Quantitative data was also gathered and appropriate
univariate statistics were employed. This was contingent upon available data, of course.
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First, we notice variations in the ecological conditions of each farms’ location (Figure 1). The
drier conditions of the California and Colorado farms contrast sharply to the higher precipitation
of the other three locations. Such variations are expected in these types of ecoregions, of course,
as are the temperature variations. General soils types are also important to each production
scheme.
Second, there are important on-farm factors that influence each farmer. The farm size of
each case study farm is smaller than the average conventional farm sizes in each region. The
year of each farm’s initial certification shows substantial experience and time commitment to
organic production. These farmers are experienced with local, regional, national, and even
international marketing efforts. The fruit, vegetables, grains, legumes, and livestock grown by
these five farmers represents nearly all the crops produced in the US! Indeed these farmers are
highly diversified and, in fact, see diversification as key to their livelihood.
According to these five case study farmers, the key factors that influence opportunities
and barriers to organic production are: economics, ecology, society, and personal variables.
Through analysis of interviews and extensive review of many visits, emails and telephone
conversations, these factors I discovered additional sub-categories that are common among these
and many organic farmers across the US. For the economic category, farmers indicate that
marketing is a central concern for their farm’s survival. Marketing factors include the need for
diversification, the importance of direct marketing, and the newest concerns about how to
withstand the powers of organic agri-business. Also in terms of economic concerns, the farmers
firmly believe that crop types and quality are very important for their success. Finally, these
farmers indicate that organic agriculture provided an opportunity for them—they say they could
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not have succeeded in conventional agriculture today with the low commodity prices and lack of
freedom from agri-business.
In terms of ecology, organic farmers commonly discussed soil health, ecosystems, and
balance. They may or may not use scientific terms for these concepts, but they clearly
understand the ecological processes at work on their farms. They also describe the annual
gamble with weather and growing conditions; they realize they cannot control these factors, but
rather must mediate them to the best of their ability.
Social issues play an important role in the success of organic farming. These farmers had
very clear visions of how American culture impacts agriculture and specifically how culture and
politics support the conventional production system with extensive subsidies. They see how
many consumers simply want cheap food, often at the long-term expense of the environment and
rural communities. Organic farmers have very specific recommendations for policies that would
improve opportunities for organic production. First, the US government must do more than
simply implement national certification standards, rather they must support farmers through the
difficult 3 year transition period. The government should also provide greater research,
information, and educational support for organic production techniques. The personal
characteristics were broadly similar among this highly diverse group of 5 farmers and their
farms. All five are fiercely independent and willing to accept risk at a personal level. That is,
they are not afraid to be different from their neighbors, but they are only willing to operate with
low debts. Their risk is in their unique methods, crops, and markets (not in their bank accounts).
These organic farmers are highly innovative and conduct their own on-farm experiments because
they have questions about organic farming methods that university researchers simply have not
addressed.
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Finally, an important unifying characteristic is that these five case study farmers proudly
represent the farming tradition, handed down from generations or from fellow organic farmers.
Each describes the importance of their continuing to farm organically, as part of that tradition.
Conclusion
This research indicates that currently there are both opportunities and barriers to organic
agricultural production in the US. In fact, the line between opportunity and barrier can be bleary;
for example, organic farmers are greatly motivated by being independent—organic production
provides a great opportunity, but it is also a barrier because they have less outside support in
organic methods of production. In addition, the popularity of organic products in both an
opportunity (increased marketing options) but a barrier, as agri-business corporations are now
making inroads into marketing which will subvert some farmers’ levels of independence.
Likewise, their farming tradition is sometimes a barrier, if it makes farmers more closed-minded
about alternative methods like organic. But of course tradition is a key asset if it provides entry
into the farm business and access to land. Diversification provides a key opportunity to
spreading out the risk for organic farmers, but it can also be a barrier, as the extensive marketing
work increases with each additional crop produced.
Overall, then, there are both opportunities and barriers that organic farmers must face.
Two key factors would help them sustain their operations, and may help others adopt organic
methods well into the future. Organic farmers need research and information, they need to be
informed so that they can make good choices for their production and marketing activities. In
addition, the three year transition to certified organic production is challenging. During this
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time, farm fields are undergoing tremendous change as synthetic chemicals are withdrawn.
Farmers have a huge learning curve to get up to speed on organic methods, and farmers do not
receive a price premium for their crops during this transition period. Indeed, the transition to
certified organic methods is a crucial time, and can sometimes mean the difference between
adopting organic methods successfully or failing. Again, research and information advice is
important at this stage, but financial assistance would be extremely useful. Government
programs to support farmers in their three year transition would make an important statement as
to public commitment to the benefits of organic agriculture. Farmers must face major barriers in
organic production; American society and government should assist whenever possible in lower
those barriers and indeed creating opportunities for organic farming to flourish.
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References
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Egri, Carolyn. 1999. Attitudes, Backgrounds and Information Preferences of Canadian Organic
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Reganold, John P., Jerry D Glover, Preston K Andrews, and Herbert R Hinman. 2001.
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FIGURE 1: Ecological Factors on Case Study Farms
CA
CO
FL
IL
Ecoregion
California West High Coastal
Prairie
Coastal
Plains
Plain
Parkland
Chaparral
Forest
Temperate
Precipitation
14.7”
15.2”
49.8”
36.7”
Soil Type
Clay loam Loam
Fine sand Silt loam
Drainage
Moderate
Well
Excessive Moderate
Jan./July
38-83°F
12-90°F 46-92°F
9-83°F
Low/High
NY
Great Lakes
Mix
Forest
35.9”
Silt loam
Well
16-82°F
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FIGURE 2: Case Study Farm Characteristics.
CA
CO
FL
Acres
250
4,800
14
Year
Markets
1989
Regional
Crops
30
vegetables,
nuts, fruits
1977
1992
Natl &
National
International
wheat,
11 citrus
buckwheat, varieties
millet,corn,
alfalfa
IL
300
NY
500
1994
Local &
National
chicken,
turkey, beef,
soy, sorghum
flax, millet,
1990
Local CSA &
Regional
25 vegetables
sheep, soy,
corn, barley,
hay
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