CHAPTER 6: GENDER
INTRODUCTION
The term gender refers to the sociocultural dimension of being male or female; gender roles are
societal expectations of civilized behavior for males and females. First, the inherited biological
blueprint influences our gender by programmed hormonal changes associated with puberty. The
intensity of feelings associated with hormonal flooding during adolescence usually leads to the
magnification of gender-based behavior. Second, the resultant behavior, or dance, demonstrated
by adolescents appears to be influenced by social norms of the community. Other members of
the family, peer group, and culture model and reinforce the behavior believed to be civilized.
Third, the adolescent has the ability to choose the behavior pattern that best fits his or her
understanding of self and expectations for personal outcome.
The following points summarize main theories and evidence explaining gender:
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Freud and Erikson believed sexual differences explained the psychological and
gender-based differences between males and females.
Evolutionary psychology explains that successful men were aggressive to fend off
competitors; women developed a preference for successful men.
Alice Eagly suggests that women perform more domestic roles, have fewer resources,
and have less control and thus developed cooperative behavior patterns.
Social cognitive theory of gender explains that gender roles are modeled, reinforced
and punished directly, and shown to be successful by parents and peers.
School and teachers influence gender roles by designing schools for male patterns of
learning and providing disproportionate levels of attention to male students.
The mass media presents magnified gender role behavior that solidifies stereotypical
expectations and behavior patterns including gender roles.
The cognitive developmental theory explains that newly acquired cognitive capacity
allows adolescents to choose a gender identity that fits personal goals and attitudes.
The gender schema theory suggests that the paths adolescents choose are determined by the combined factors of cognitive, societal, and biological influences.
Gender stereotypes reflect sweeping explanations that are believed to characterize
patterns of thought and behavior. Once established, gender stereotypes are hard to shake. Sexism
occurs as a result of exclusionary practices based on a categorization of male or female as
opposed to determining actual capability required for the task. In reality, the differences between
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males and females are relatively small. The area of greatest difference occurs following puberty
in the area of physical development. The male and female differences in cognitive performance
are small. In the area of socioemotional differences, several patterns emerge: females establish
connections through rapport talk versus the male style of report talk; males are more
physically aggressive and active than are females. Most psychologists argue that differences
between males and females vary in degree depending on the domain observed. Behavior
characteristic of either gender may be influenced by the context in which it is observed.
Gender role classifications include the following:
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Traditional gender roles—males are independent, aggressive, and power oriented;
females are dependent, nurturing, and uninterested in power; women’s traits are
expressive, warm, and emotional; and men’s traits are instrumental and competent.
Androgyny—males and females demonstrate high levels of both expressive and
instrumental behavior, as both are desirable characteristics in promoting mental
health due to increased flexibility, responsiveness in personal relationships, and
managers.
Attempts to change attitudes about gender-role orientation have shown mixed results as
children demonstrate more liberal responses to role diversity than do young adolescents.
Traditional masculinity and problem behaviors—males engage in officially
sanctioned but covertly reinforced behavior that heightens an image of masculinity,
e.g., risky, aggressive or violent, and sexual behavior.
Health—men have riskier lives than do women including shorter lives and more
violence.
Male-female relationships—men often interpret societal expectations as men’s
responsibility to be in control; and societal sanctions for dominance, power, and
aggression.
Male-male relationships—men have had too little time with fathers demonstrating
flexibility, nurturance, and sensitivity toward others.
Gender-role transcendence—the competence of males and females is not based on
gender roles but on peoples’ ability to respond humanely to each other.
Developmental changes associated with puberty have a tremendous impact on genderbased behavior. The gender intensification hypothesis explains that behavior change during
maturation signals others to impose social expectations for the adolescent to demonstrate
appropriate gender roles. Carol Gilligan explained that females must adapt to different levels of
sensitivity between males and females, and adapt to male-dominated societies. An unfortunate
side effect occurs as females suppress their ideas and sometimes become self-destructive.
Feminine girls appear to lower their voices and adopt gender appropriate expectations in public
settings; androgynous females maintain strong voices in all settings.
Feminists are concerned about the study of women in the context of a male dominated
theme. Carol Gilligan encourages women to establish their own perspective from personal
development and experience. Assertive, independent, and authentic selves present a distinct female
voice and perspective on gender. Biology and social factors influence gender expectations, yet
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determining individual roles serves as a central task of adolescent development—one adolescents
are highly motivated to complete.
TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE
Chapter 6: Gender
HEADING
RESOURCE
I.
BIOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, AND COGNITIVE
INFLUENCES ON GENDER
Learning Goal: 1
Image Gallery: 22
Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.1, 6.3
Short Scenario: 6.1
Essay Question: 1
Biological Influences on Gender
Lecture Topic: 6.1
Discussion Topic: 6.1
Short Scenarios: 6.3
Essay Question: 1
Pubertal Change and Sexuality
Image Gallery: 144, 146
Short Scenario: 6.3
Essay Question: 1
Freud and Erikson—Anatomy Is Destiny
Essay Question: 1
Evolutionary Psychology and Gender
Discussion Topic: 6.1
Essay Question: 1
WWW: Gender Resources at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Social Influences on Gender
Lecture Topic: 6.1
Short Scenario: 6.1, 6.2, 6.3
Research Article: 6.2
Research Project: 6.1
Essay Question: 1
WWW: Alice Eagly’s Research at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Parental Influences
Discussion Topic: 6.3
Short Scenario: 6.1
Essay Question: 1
Siblings
Short Scenario: 6.1
Peers
Research Article: 6.1
Essay Question: 1
Schools and Teachers
Essay Questions: 1, 2
WWW: Shortchanging Girls; Shortchanging America; Positive
Expectations for Girls; War on Boys; Center for Gender Equity;
Gender and Television at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Mass-Media Influences
Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.1
Research Article: 6.2
Research Project: 6.2
Essay Questions: 1, 3
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Cognitive Influences on Gender
III.
Short Scenario: 6.1, 6.2, 6.3
Research Project: 6.1
Essay Question: 1, 4
Research Article: 6.2
GENDER STEREOTYPES, SIMILARITIES, AND Learning Goal: 2
DIFFERENCES
Lecture Topic: 6.2, 6.3
Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.3
In-Class Activity: 6.1
Essay Question: 5
Gender Stereotyping
In-Class Activity: 6.1
Short Scenarios: 6.2, 6.3
Research Project: 6.1
Essay Question: 5
WWW: Girls and Technology; Telementoring for Girls at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Gender Similarities and Differences
Lecture Topic: 6.2
In-Class Activity: 6.2
Research Articles: 6.1, 6.2
Essay Question: 6
Physical Similarities and Differences
Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.1
Research Article: 6.2
Essay Question: 6
Cognitive Similarities and Differences
Research Article: 6.1
Essay Question: 6
Socioemotional Similarities and Differences Essay Question: 6
IV.
Gender in Context
Learning Goal: 2
Discussion Topic: 6.2
In-Class Activity: 6.2
Research Articles: 6.1, 6.2
Essay Question: 6
GENDER-ROLE CLASSIFICATION
Learning Goal: 3
Image Gallery: 132
Discussion Topic: 6.2
Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.3
Essay Question: 7
Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Lecture Topic: 6.3
Discussion Topic: 6.3
Short Scenario: 6.3
Essay Question: 8
Research Project: 6.1
WWW: Gender Around the World; Gender Socialization in Six
Countries at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Context, Culture, and Gender Roles
Lecture Topic: 6.1
Androgyny and Education
Essay Question: 2
Traditional Masculinity and Problem Behaviors in
Adolescent Males
Learning Goal: 3
Lecture Topic: 6.3
Short Scenario: 6.1, 6.2, 6.3
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Essay Question: 8
WWW: The Men’s Bibliography; Psychological Study of Men and
Masculinity; Male Issues; Men’s Movement Organizations at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
V.
Gender-Role Transcendence
Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.3
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES AND
JUNCTURES
Learning Goal: 4
WWW: American Association of University Women at
www.aauw.org
Early Adolescence and Gender Intensification
Short Scenario: 6.5
Is Early Adolescence a Critical Juncture for
Females?
Critical Thinking Exercises: 6.1, 6.2
Essay Questions: 9,10
Careers in Adolescent Development: Carol Gilligan, Professor and
Chair of Gender Studies Program
SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS
Topic 6.1—Cross-cultural Comparison of Children
Santrock defines gender as a sociocultural dimension of being male or female. A logical question is,
“How does female and male gender differ across cultures?” Beatrice Whiting and John Whiting
conducted cross-cultural investigations of aggression, nurturance, help seeking, sociability, and
other social behaviors in children living in six cultures. Six field teams collected data in Kenya,
Okinawa, India, the Philippines, Mexico, and the United States. The behaviors that they observed
included offers help, offers support, and suggests responsibly (high positive), seeks help, seeks
dominance, and seeks attention (high negative), acts sociably, assaults sociably, and touches (high
positive), and reprimands and assaults (high negative). Chores that the children were observed
doing included carrying wood, water, or fodder; cleaning and other household work; gathering,
preparing, or cooking food; gardening; caring for animals; and caring for younger siblings. A
comparison of cultures showed that differences in behavior between males and females were more
exaggerated in some cultures than in others. The United States revealed the least distinct differences
between males and females. The most common and dominant behavior across the cultural groups
was acts sociably. The least common behaviors were touches and assaults. The other nine behaviors
occurred at varying levels of frequency throughout the six cultures. An interesting result of the
observations was that children involved with the care of the household and siblings tended to show
lower levels of gender differences and more reluctance toward aggression than children not
conducting those chores. The variability of the outcomes suggests that biological factors cannot be
ignored, but that cultural influence was responsible for a great deal of variation between
demonstrated gender roles.
Reference
Whiting, B. B., & Whiting, J. W. M. (1975). Children of six cultures: A psycho-cultural analysis. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
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Topic 6.2—Researching Gender Roles
In early gender research, psychologists tended to emphasize gender differences. Scientific
observations start with the assumption that males are reason-oriented and females are emotionoriented. In doing this, psychologists have followed prevailing cultural beliefs that males and
females are opposites, that women are the vassals of nonmasculine traits, and that gender
differences are based on biological differences (Hare-Mustin & Marecek, 1988). Yet, which
would be a longer list: a list of how females and males are different, or a list of how females and
males are similar?
On the other hand, when not directly observing gender roles, psychologists have
sometimes ignored gender differences. Prior to the 1970s, many research studies used male
subjects and generalized the results to all people. Since the male norms were most valued within
the society, all human behavior was measured on the basis of the male norm. Psychology needs
to develop research that neither overestimates gender differences (called an alpha bias) nor
underestimates gender differences (called a beta bias). “Paradoxes arise, because every
representation conceals at the same time it reveals. For example, focusing on gender differences
marginalizes and obscures the inter-relatedness of women and men, as well as the restricted
opportunities of both. It also obscures institutional sexism and the extent of male authority . . .
[On the other hand, the beta bias attempt at denying differences reaffirms male behavior as the
standard against which all behavior is judged.]” (Hare-Mustin & Marecek, 1988, p. 462). Both
psychology and society are learning how to think more constructively about gender roles.
Reference
Hare-Mustin, R. T. & Marecek, (1988). The meaning of difference: Gender theory, postmodernism, and
psychology. American Psychologist, 43, 455–464.
Topic 6.3—The Four Rules of Male Gender Role
Both boys and girls believe that male gender-role deviations are more serious than female
gender-role deviations (Smetana, 1986). Traditionally, males are taught four strong rules about
their gender role (David & Brannon, 1976):
1.
“No sissy stuff.” This rule encourages boys to be as different from girls as possible (e.g.,
“Don’t be a baby and don’t be a girl”).
2.
“Be a big wheel.” This rule encourages boys to be superior to others and to compete rather
than to cooperate (e.g., “Winning is everything”).
3.
“Be a sturdy oak.” This rule encourages male independence and self-reliance, but may also
keep boys from asking for help when they need help and from feeling comfortable with
their emotions (e.g., “Big boys don’t cry”).
4.
“Give ‘em hell.” This rule encourages boys to be power-oriented, aggressive, ruthless, and
even violent (e.g., “My dad can whip your dad”).
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References
David, D. S., & Brannon, R. (1976). The forty-nine percent majority: The male sex role. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Smetana, J. G. (1986). Preschool children’s conceptions of sex-role transgressions. Child Development,
57, 862–871.
CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES
Discussion Topics
Discussion 6.1—A Biologist’s Perspective on Differences
Anne Fausto-Sterling, member of the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and
Biochemistry at Brown University, provides her biological perspective on current discussion by
social scientists that study gender. Fausto-Sterling suggests that in order for social scientists to
use biology to answer developmental or evolutionary questions, questions must be considered
carefully. If one is interested in explaining the way things are, then an evolutionary perspective
works best. Developmental understandings are more useful for designing policies to change the
status quo. As an example, David Buss (1995) proposed that women, in an effort to sustain
themselves through childbearing and difficult times of low resource availability, prefer mates
who demonstrate the ability to secure resources. Fausto-Sterling suggests that an equally
plausible explanation to men’s skills of providing for women is that women’s spatial and
memory skills evolved to ensure their survival. Without adequate data and specific hypotheses,
there is no way of knowing exactly what occurred.
Latour and Strum (1986) devised a set of questions to help propose specific hypotheses
about human evolution. The questionnaire was used to evaluate the quality of theories
constructed by social scientists and biologists. The nine questions follow:
1.
Are the units of evolution measured by genes, individuals, family, or species?
2.
Do the units possess qualities of selfishness, self-regulation, harmony, or aggression?
3.
Based on the qualities of the units, were relationships exploitative, trade-offs, or
competitive?
4.
Are time delays between relationships pre-hominid, hominid, homosapiens, or
prehistorical?
5.
What type of measurement can be used to answer questions 1–4?
6.
What framework is used to explain the story?
7.
What causes explain the events (e.g., shifts in fauna)?
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8.
What methodology is specified?
9.
What are the explicit political lessons that the theory authors conclude?
Evolutionary psychologists reason backward from contemporary humans. This approach
requires that they analyze carefully human epigenetic systems and attend to the specific context
in which specific behavior occurs. Sound evolutionary arguments must clearly distinguish
between information that documents specific current events and information that is used to
construct a hypothesis about the past. By the way, Latour and Strum (1986) concluded that social
scientists and biologists universally failed the test in hypothesis construction.
References
Buss, D. (1995). Psychological sex differences: Origins through sexual selection. American Psychologist,
50, 164-168.
Fausto-Sterling, A. (1997). Beyond difference: A biologist’s perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 53,
233–258.
Latour, B., & Strum, S. C. (1986). Human social origins: Oh please, tell us another story. Journal of
Social Biological Structure, 9, 169–187.
Discussion 6.2—Tootsie and Gender Roles
Ask students to view the movie Tootsie or Mrs. Doubtfire before the class that you would like to
discuss gender roles. Before watching the film, instruct students to look for specific gender
concepts, either from Figure 6.1, Old-Fashioned and Modern Sexism, or Figure 6.3, Changing
Attitudes About Gender Roles, from Chapter 6. The films lead to discussion of gender role
differences demonstrated by men and women as depicted by men forced to learn the new roles
quickly. During the discussion, take note of the differences in behavior, such as smiling, eye
contact, gestures, physical stance, and walking. If both films are watched, compare the different
behaviors both actors demonstrate when playing the roles of women.
Other aspects of the movies are also interesting and applicable to the topics of this
chapter. The concept of androgyny emerges as each actor discovers more feminine components
as he develops the personality of the new character, Dorothy or Mrs. Doubtfire. The relationships
between the men and the leading women were also important as they developed connections
between masculine and feminine characteristics.
Reference
Jessen, B. C. (1990). Tootsie and gender roles. In V. P. Makosky, C. C. Sileo, L. G. Whittemore, C. P.
Landry, & M. L. Skutley (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 3) (pp.
301). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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Discussion 6.3—Gender-Biased Treatment by Parents
Have students discuss how parents reward and punish boys and girls differently and thereby
contribute to gender differences in behaviors, beliefs, and so forth. Have them provide specific
examples.
Parents, especially mothers, act fairly consistently toward boys and girls, but the subtle
differences contribute to gender-typed behavior. Here are a few examples from the following
articles:
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Parents are more favorably responsive to girls talking about emotions and feelings
than they are toward boys. In fact, they may give negative responses to boys who act
or talk about being sad.
Parents are also more negative toward sons who act dependent than to daughters who
do so.
Sons are more likely to be punished for misbehaving, and parents also allow sons to
be more independent and expect less compliance.
References
Fuchs, D. & Thelen, M. H. (1988). Children’s expected interpersonal consequences of communicating
their affective state and reported likelihood of expression. Child Development, 59, 1314–1322.
Russell, G. & Russell, A. (1987). Mother-child and father-child relationships in middle childhood. Child
Development, 58, 1573–1585.
In-Class Activities
Activity 6.1—Current Sex-role Stereotypes
This classroom activity follows a procedure used in Inga Broverman’s research. Divide the class
randomly into thirds, asking one-third to describe a competent woman, one-third to describe a
competent man, and one-third to describe a competent adult. Each group is then given bipolar
adjective scales (e.g., gentle-rough, tactful-blunt) to formulate their descriptions. The class then
analyzes the results. Are competent adults described in masculine terms?
Broverman found that most of her competency or instrumentality items were masculineoriented, whereas most of the warmth-expressive items were feminine-oriented. You can
emphasize some of Santrock’s comments about androgyny and competence, and you might point
out certain dilemmas associated with traditional sex roles. For example, traditional males are
often “unsexed” by failure, whereas traditional females are “unsexed” by success. Patterns of
dominance and dependency may lead to problematic heterosexual relationships as well. A good
way to conclude your comments could be to read the “Berkeley Men’s Center Manifesto”
(Garfinkle & Morin, 1978, p. 110).
References
Broverman, I. K.; Vogel, S. R.; Broverman, D. M.; Clarkson, F. E., & Rosenkrantz, P.S. (1972). Sex-role
stereotypes: A current appraisal. Journal of Social Issues, 28(2), 59–78.
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Garfinkle, E. M., & Morin, S. F. (1978). Psychologists’ attitudes toward homosexual psychotherapy
clients. The Journal of Social Issues, 34(3), 101–112.
Walraven, M. G. (1993). Instructor’s course planner to accompany Adolescence (5th ed.) by J. Santrock.
Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990). Measuring sex stereotypes: A multinational study (rev. ed.).
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Activity 6.2—Role-playing the Opposite Gender
Ask students to pair up and do a role-playing task, with males playing the female role and
females playing the male role. This activity can allow each sex to try to understand the feelings
of the other in certain situations. Have them role-play situations like the following:
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A male is drunk at a party. He wants to drive home, but his sober girlfriend wants to
drive instead.
A girl becomes pregnant and tells her boyfriend.
A female is transferred from her job to another city and tells her husband.
A male is transferred from his job to another city and tells his wife.
A woman wants to go to work but her husband is against it, and they are trying to
settle the conflict.
A girl asks a guy out. Or, a guy asks a girl out.
A husband loses his job and tells his wife. Or, a wife loses her job and tells her
husband.
A boss makes advances on a worker.
A husband wants another child but his wife does not.
A boy wants to live with a girl but the girl wants marriage. Or, a girl wants to live
with a boy but the boy wants marriage.
A girl picks up a boy in a bar. Or, a boy picks up a girl in a bar.
These tasks, if done well, allow the students to empathize with the opposite sex. It is
expected that the role-playing will most likely be stereotyped, with males portrayed as dominant
and independent and females as emotional and dependent. It is also predicted that in the worker
scenes, the male’s job situation will take priority over the female’s job. Students may attempt to
simplify these situations by having the female stay home and have a family.
Reference
King, M. B. & Clark, D. E. (1989). Instructor’s manual to accompany Child development: An
introduction (4th ed.) by J. W. Santrock and S. R. Yussen. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown.
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Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 6.1—Being A Wise Consumer
At the end of Chapter 2 of Adolescence Santrock presents some guidelines for being a wise
consumer of information about adolescent development. Study the pairings of guidelines and
research findings presented in Chapter 6 below, and decide which pair represents an appropriate
criticism of the information presented in the chapter. Circle the letter of the best answer,
explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.
A.
Consider the source of information and evaluate its credibility: attention and behavioral
differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence.
B.
Causal conclusions cannot be made from correlational data: boys’ sexual activity is related
to increases in the level of androgens in their bodies.
C.
Be cautious of what is reported in the popular media: television is highly genderstereotyped and conveys messages about the relative power and importance of women.
D.
Distinguish between nomothetic research and idiographic needs: the work of Carol
Gilligan.
E.
A single study is usually not the defining word: section—physical/biological differences.
Exercise 6.2—Characterizing Gilligan’s Work
Santrock summarizes Carol Gilligan’s work on the idea that early adolescence is a critical
juncture for females, and then outlines several criticisms of Gilligan’s work. Which of the
following brief statements best characterizes these criticisms? Circle the letter of the best
answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as
appropriate.
A.
Gilligan’s work is sexist.
B.
Gilligan’s work is unethical.
C.
Gilligan’s work is not about a developmental issue.
D.
Gilligan’s ideas cannot be tested.
E.
Gilligan draws causal conclusions from correlational data.
Exercise 6.3—Investigating Gender Roles
In this chapter Santrock describes attempts to define and measure gender roles. Which of the
following statements constitutes an assumption made by gender role researchers, rather than an
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inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best
answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.
A.
Girls will grow up to have feminine gender roles, and boys will grow up to have masculine
gender roles.
B.
Gender-role stereotypes are more harmful to females than to males.
C.
Femininity and masculinity are separable aspects of personality that have their own unique
characteristics.
D.
Most college students agree that women should not be restricted to traditional roles.
E.
Rather than merge gender roles, females and males should transcend gender-role
characteristics.
Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 6.1
A. This is not the best answer. Santrock cites several appropriate studies that support this
claim.
B.
This is not the best answer. Santrock does not say that the relationship is causal.
C.
This is not the best answer. The information in the text emphasizes the concern that the
media sends inaccurate messages.
D.
This is not the best answer. The main argument against it is that Gilligan and her colleagues
have used large samples of girls and women in their work. The difficulty is that they have
usually excluded males, which may render plausible the claim that they have not overcome
their own idiographic needs.
E.
This is the best answer. There is only one reference for the information provided in this
section of the chapter.
Exercise 6.2
A. This is the best answer. In Chapter 1 Santrock points out that a researcher’s stereotyped
assumptions about sexes can lead to research that omits one sex from a study. Some of
Gilligan’s critics say just that about her work, that Gilligan assumed girls are different from
boys and therefore did not include boys in her research. Critics also suggest Gilligan
exaggerates sex differences.
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B.
This is not the best answer. The critics say nothing about Gilligan’s harming her subjects,
failing to obtain informed consent, or violating any other of APA’s guidelines for ethical
research.
C.
This is not the best answer. For example, Gilligan’s theory is about discontinuity in the
development of girl’s self-esteem; her theory is about how girls’ personalities change over
a portion of the life span, with special reference to early adolescence as a special period of
development.
D.
This is not the best answer. What critics have suggested is that Gilligan has not tested her
own ideas because she excludes males from her research. Sympathetic researchers have, in
fact, tested aspects of Gilligan’s theory with appropriate samples of boys and girls.
E.
This is not the best answer. Gilligan herself does not have correlational data, because she
did not include boys in her research. More importantly, Santrock does not describe any
correlational work that Gilligan has done.
Exercise 6.3
A. This is an inference. Especially during adolescence, females and males demonstrate
behavior to differentiate them from the opposite sex. Biological, social, and cognitive
theories explain how the developmental process occurs.
B.
This is an inference. It is based on the observation that males enjoy more favorable gender
stereotypes, which (logically) suggests that these roles will harm them less than women.
However, the actual claim is not supported in the chapter with direct evidence.
C.
This is the assumption. This belief led researchers to develop separate scales for
masculinity and femininity. However, the belief itself has not been independently
confirmed, and the text does not present either argument or evidence for its validity.
D.
This is an observation. The statement is presented as a description of survey results.
E.
This is an inference. It is the conclusion of Pleck’s argument that gender-role
classifications create false dichotomies or contrasts, and that individuals are actually unique
and must resolve gender issues on their own terms.
Short Scenarios
Scenario 6.1
Amy and Marian are discussing their adolescent children and the differences they experienced
during their own adolescence. Amy grew up in a home where both of their parents worked. Her
mom was an accountant and her dad was the principal at a high school. Amy and her brother had
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responsibilities at home including finishing dinner that her mom started the night before,
regularly doing a load of laundry, vacuuming, or finishing yard work after school. They also
were expected to do well academically, participate in civic clubs with friends their age, and
choose a sport to which they would commit some time throughout the year.
Marian was one of four children in a somewhat traditional home. Her father was a
machinist for a car manufacturing plant and her mother was a homemaker. Marian’s mother
waited on everyone with seemingly endless amounts of energy and commitment. She never
complained or protested if someone criticized her or the things that she did. Her father, however,
could be counted on to dole out some serious consequences if any of the kids were really out of
line. As the children grew older, the boys took part-time jobs, but Marian was expected to
continue to help her mother at home. Without plans or expectations for her to go to college,
Marian took the first seemingly good opportunity to marry. She soon had a baby, divorced, and
completed an x-ray technician program. Amy and Marian are proud of their own children’s
accomplishments and their ability to take on a wide variety of responsibilities. The adolescents
demonstrate concern for others and motivation to achieve. The mothers also marvel at the
solipsism demonstrated by so many other teenagers.
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Amy grew up in a middle-class home with two professional parents as models.
According to the social cognitive theory of gender, both Amy and Marian learned the
gender roles for which they were reinforced.
Amy and her brother were expected to complete household tasks and were reinforced
for doing so. (social cognitive theory of development)
According to the cognitive developmental theory, Amy and Marian had the
opportunity to choose the gender-based behavior that they demonstrate.
Marian did not follow through with the roles that her parents demonstrated for her;
she divorced and is promoting androgynous behavior by her children. (cognitive
developmental)
Amy and her brother had similar expectations; no designation was made between
genders, suggesting that androgynous behavior was reinforced in both children.
Marian came from a traditional family; her mother modeled traditional gender roles
of serving the family. (Gilligan’s selfless female role)
Marian and her siblings experienced an authoritarian parenting style and were
expected to maintain traditional roles.
Marian’s father saw male-female relationships in a very traditional way, expecting to
have responsibility and to be in control.
In an attempt to escape the family responsibilities that she had in her parents’ home,
Marian began a family of her own.
Both women are encouraging their children to develop androgynous gender roles,
positive mental health, and responsive interpersonal relationships.
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Scenario 6.2
Alicia is 20 years old. Ten years ago she moved from Guadalajara, Mexico, to San Diego,
California, with her parents and siblings. In Guadalajara, there were not enough jobs or chances
for children to go to school. San Diego is so different from what she grew up with in Mexico. At
home, men were very machismo—they were in charge of everything. She was expected to wait
on her father and brothers, and did not go to school very often. Women expected to wait in line
and be last. Even at fancy clubs, unescorted women were seated last.
In the United States, Alicia works as a housekeeper for the Wheeler family. Mr. and Mrs.
Wheeler have three children: Heather is 15, Thomas is 12, and Beth is 4 years old. The children
take turns going first as they play games or are served at mealtime. Heather and Thomas
regularly swim in their backyard pool and compete with each other athletically. Heather wins the
swimming and diving contests with her brother now, but they joke about Thomas’s becoming a
monster swimmer as he reaches puberty. Alicia hopes that when she has children, they will have
the same opportunities for fun and for choosing their roles in life.
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Alicia is describing cultural influences on gender roles.
In Mexico, Alicia was expected to take a very traditional role and not encouraged to
participate in the educational process.
Social factors influence cognitive factors; women are viewed as lacking logical
thinking skills—a direct result of their exclusion from education.
Men assumed a traditional male-female relationship in which they take control,
protecting and dominating the family in Hispanic culture.
The Wheelers, as a typical upper-middle class family, have noticeably different
standards for their children than Alicia experienced.
The three children are treated equally, with the same expectations for social behavior
and athletic skill.
Scenario 6.3
Steve has just experienced a major change in his voice. Sometimes he doesn’t recognize that it is
his. Actually, there are a lot of things about himself that he does not recognize. He is no longer
interested in playing soccer on a co-ed team because the girls are a distraction. They need
protecting from guys on the opposing team, they take his mind off the game, and they can’t play
as well as the guys, anyway. He’s also finding that the girls he previously thought were too
prissy are now very enticing.
Steve also wants to enhance his image. He has started weight lifting, is much more
interested in clothes than he used to be, and will be buying a motorcycle as soon as he gets his
license. Of course he doesn’t need a girlfriend, but it would be handy to have a girl for parties
and driving around town.
Steve’s mother is both appalled and hurt by his magnified attention to gender differences.
As a professional observing and experiencing sexism in the work environment, she has pointed
out differences in salaries, job opportunities, and community expectations that place the onus on
women to be extremely competent and well organized to be successful. Steve argues that men
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are in positions of greater responsibility and therefore must be confident about who they hire for
various positions. Further, they should be adequately compensated for the additional
responsibility. His mother hopes that this is a phase, and that it passes quickly.
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Steve seems to have a gender schema that places males and females in traditional
gender roles.
Steve is an example of youth exposed to androgynous behavior expectations, but
caught up in gender stereotypes.
Steve is expressing the male-female relationship in traditional terms of male
dominance and control.
Steve has drawn the conclusion that the female players are not as good, possibly due
to his sexism more than an objective assessment of the girls’ performance.
Steve is demonstrating the gender intensification.
Steve has formed a hypothesis and is developing expectations that fit distinct gender
roles.
Steve’s explanations of gender roles could be identified as examples of the Freud,
Erikson, or evolutionary psychology perspective that anatomy is destiny.
An explanation for Steve’s behavior could be the social influences of the mass media;
distinct roles portrayed by television characters, and music video stereotypes.
Steve’s mother attempted to explain the issues of sexism through rapport talk.
Steve’s responses to his mother about sexism reflect solid, old-fashioned sexism.
CURRENT RESEARCH ARTICLES
Article 6.1—Goals as a Mediator in Dyadic Conversations
Similarities and differences in peer conversation between girls, boys, and mixed-gender dyads
are evident as documented by extensive previous research. Differences have been attributed to
divergent goals: girls’ concern for needs of self and peer and boys’ concern for control and
status. Same-gender dyads show greater affiliation between females and low-affiliation strategies
between boys. Mixed-gender dyads often show that girls change interaction style to lowaffiliation strategies whereas boys usually continue to demonstrate the same approach with girls
as with boys.
This research investigated (1) whether similarities and differences in mutual-participation
goals were a function of the gender of the participants, and (2) whether goals influenced gender
differences in high-affiliation conversations.
The participants included 104 sixth-grade preadolescents (53 girls) averaging 12 years of
age (11.67 to 13.25 years). Seventy-seven percent of students recruited from a public school
participated in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to same- or other-gender dyads
creating 18 female, 17 male, and 17 mixed-gender dyads.
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The first set of procedures involved completing the creative writing assignment.
Participants were assigned to work with their peers for 45 minutes, two times a week, for 4
weeks as a part of class assignments. A mixed-gender pair of researchers videotaped two 15minute writing periods and administered questionnaires following completion of the two
sessions. The questionnaires, based on pilot research, were used to determine the extent to which
participants attempted to accomplish each of 20 goals during the previous session. Videotaping
and questionnaire administration took place at the beginning and end of the project, an average
of 2 weeks apart.
The second set of procedures included segmenting the conversations into communication
units, divided by change in speaker, pause, or change in idea. The communication units were
identified as falling into one of 17 categories. High-affiliation conversations were characterized
as collaborative (affirming, elaborating, informing, and asking) and obliging (going along,
willingly submitting, and seeking manipulation/suggestion) communication units. Low-affiliation
conversations were characterized as controlling (denigrating, countering, commanding, and
resisting) and withdrawing (evasiveness, hesitancy, reluctance, nonparticipation, and silence)
communication units.
Gender, conversations, and goals over time were analyzed through repeated measure
designs. A repeated measures analysis of variance comparing dyad gender and conversation
showed high-affiliation conversations were more prevalent in female dyads than in male or
mixed-gender dyads. A comparison of conversations between Times 1 and 2 showed that highaffiliation conversations were more prevalent at Time 1 than at Time 2.
Mutual-participation goal scores were higher in female dyads than in the other two dyads;
mutual-participation goal scores did not differ between male or mixed-gender dyads. In mixedgender dyads, collaboration units, obliging communication units, and mutual-participation goals
did not differ for male and female participants.
The hypothesized model, goals as a mediator of dyad gender differences in conversations,
was examined through a regression analysis of differences in high-affiliation conversations.
Separate analyses of data from Times 1 and 2 found similar results. First, female dyads
demonstrated a higher occurrence of high-affiliation conversations than did male or mixedgender dyads. Second, mutual-participation goal scores were higher for female dyads than for
male or mixed-gender dyads. Third, goals were identified as a significant mediator of differences
between dyads in high-affiliation conversations. The same regression analyses completed at
Time 2 showed no significant differences between dyad gender for high-affiliation
conversations; there were reduced effects of dyad gender. The mutual-participation goal at Time
2 did not show change; mutual participation was significant.
In conclusion, mutual-participation goals influenced pairs of young adolescents to engage
in high-affiliation conversations whether they were same- or mixed-gender dyads. The results
showed that female dyads demonstrated more high-affiliation conversation than did the male- or
mixed-gender dyads. Further, high-affiliation conversation occurred during the first assessment
period at the beginning of the project compared to the second assessment period. Differences in
conversation for mixed-gender dyads were associated with similar levels of high-affiliation
conversation by females and males. The differences between same- and mixed-gender dyads
suggest that females reduce and males increase the amount of high-affiliation conversation they
IM 6 | 17
likely would demonstrate in same-gender dyads. In the context of a written assignment, the
salience of gender may be reduced.
Reference
Strough, J., & Berg, C. A. (2000). Goals as a mediator of gender differences in high-affiliation dyadic
conversations. Developmental Psychology, 36, 117–125.
Article 6.2—Gender Differences in Depressed Mood
Previous research has shown that females experience depression at a rate 1.6 to 2 times higher
than that by males during adulthood. Measures of depressed mood and depressive syndrome also
show different rates of occurrence between adolescent males and females. Recent research
identified the shift as occurring somewhere between early and middle adolescence, or between
13 and 14 years of age. A question that has not been answered is that of the event or experience
that influences depressed mood at the time of or just prior to the emergence of sex differences.
The age and maturity of female adolescents influences the way in which peers and adults
respond toward them, and subsequently a shift toward stereotypical female behaviors. The
gender intensification process also suggests that girls will identify more strongly with female
stereotypes during adolescence than at other times. Three major challenges, or stressors, have
been identified that represent key factors in the gender intensification hypothesis including
pubertal development, school change, and body dissatisfaction. Changes in pubertal status appear
to be most troublesome for early adolescent females, although the results across studies are not
entirely consistent. School changes in combination with pubertal changes were identified as
accounting for poor self-esteem and depressed mood among girls. Finally, body satisfaction
appears to be the most important factor in relation to global self-esteem; low levels of
satisfaction are associated with poor self-esteem.
The extended gender intensification model (EGIM) proposes that both the gender
intensification hypothesis and the body dissatisfaction hypothesis may be influencing a causal
chain. The result of being an early-adolescent female, as opposed to a male, entails (1) maturing
earlier, (2) having smaller physique, (3) perceiving self as fatter, (4) identifying resolutely with
the female stereotype, (5) increasing physical mass, (6) perceiving self as less attractive than
acceptable stereotypes, and (7) developing general dissatisfaction with appearance.
The 10,839 subjects were students enrolled in grades 7 through 12, ranging in age from
12 to 20 years, from 67 schools in Norway. The questionnaire was administered during school
and took about 90 minutes to complete. All students completed the questionnaire at the same
time except for a small number absent during the first administration.
The questionnaire included instruments for six categories of behavior: Depressed mood
was measured using a form derived from the SCL-90 checklist. Using a 4-point rating scale,
students were asked to indicate the frequency of events such as having trouble going to sleep or
feeling too tired to do anything. Sex role identification was measured with a brief form of the
Bem’s Sex-Role Inventory using a 5-point scale. The Pubertal Development Scale was used to
assess five areas of development with a 4-point scale. Body mass index was based on the
students’ self reports, and perceived obesity was based on a single measure. Satisfaction with
body and appearance was measured with the Body Area Satisfaction Scale made up of seven
IM 6 | 18
items asking students to rank satisfaction with specific body parts including face, lower torso,
mid-torso, upper torso, muscle tone, weight, and height. Self-esteem was measured using the
Global Self-Worth subscale of the SPPA. School change and its occurrence with puberty were
measured for elementary to junior high school changes.
As expected, girls reported higher levels of depression than did boys. For the entire age
span from 12 to 20 years of age, the mean score for girls was 58 percent of a standard deviation
above boys. An analysis of variance showed that both sex and age influenced the reported
differences in depressed mood. Levels of depression showed a gradual shift for girls from age 12
to age 14: 12-year-old girls showed similar mood to boys; 13-year-olds showed a slight sex
difference; but by age 14 and through age 20, girls showed a one-half standard deviation above
the boys. About five percent of adolescents reported above average levels of distress or trouble,
which was interpreted as depressed mood.
Structural equation modeling was used to test the complete extended gender intensification
model (EGIM). The results showed a weak path between pubertal timing and femininity
(dissatisfaction resulted from increased tissue fat and perception of being overweight). Including
a direct effect of gender on satisfaction improved the model further, but modifying the analysis
of Global Self-Worth as a mediator for femininity and satisfaction with body parts resulted in the
best fit for the model. The results showed that the EGIM was effective in explaining 90 percent
of the variation between girls and boys. The most influential chain began with satisfaction with
body parts, moved to Global Self-Worth, and ended with Global Physical Appearance. The
second influential chain began with femininity influences of the three factors above, but also has
a direct effect on depressed mood. Pubertal timing has some effect on increasing BMI, thus
influencing dissatisfaction with appearance.
In summary, the results show adolescent girls consistently reported higher levels of
depressed mood at age 13 and above. Body dissatisfaction surfaced as the most highly correlated
factor with depressed mood in the final model. While body weight was hypothesized to be the
most influential factor, the perceived lack of thinness was correlated with dissatisfaction toward
specific body parts and initial pubertal timing to contribute to depressed mood.
Reference
Wichstrom, L. (1999). The emergence of gender difference in depressed mood during adolescence: The
role of intensified gender socialization. Developmental Psychology, 35, 232–245.
STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS
Research Project 6.1—The Role of Gender in the Corporate World
Objective. Students will be able to describe the roles of male and female members of major
corporations and formulate conclusions about the impact of gender role expectations.
Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; variable.
IM 6 | 19
Directions. This semester project has three phases. First, students should identify companies that
have governing boards. Three types of influential companies include Fortune 500 companies,
publishing companies, and local companies. In the category of Fortune 500 companies, be sure
to choose a diversity that represents technology, consumer staples, consumer cycles, energy,
financial services, health care, utilities, communication services, transportation, and basic
materials. Identify as many companies as possible, up to 50 percent, that provide products or
services primarily for females (e.g., Estée Lauder). In the area of publishing, identify the board
of directors or editorial board of popular press magazines. Again, be sure to compare categories
of magazines such as weekly news, sports, parenting, fashion, health, hobbies, politics,
technology, home improvement, and travel. Balance the gender focus by getting two magazines
from each category, with one of each oriented toward female and male audiences. Finally,
identify local businesses in the city or state that have boards of directors including the chamber
of commerce, local foundations, churches, utilities, manufacturing companies, services,
hospitals, and a telephone company.
Second, conduct interviews of two board members, one female and one male, from each
type of company, Fortune 500, magazine publishers, and local concerns. Ask board members to
explain their duties, including details about the frequency and duration of meetings, fiscal
management responsibilities, and the extent of responsibility in overseeing company philosophy,
activity, and productivity.
Third, complete some simple analyses of the composition of boards and the roles that
board members fill. Draw some conclusions about gender roles, gender stereotypes and,
possibly, sexism that take place in American businesses. Students should write a group paper
describing their findings.
Wrap-Up. Students may work independently or in small groups to complete a final report
describing the methods, results, and conclusions of their investigations. Follow the writing
guidelines in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.) (2001).
In your report, explain what you learned about modern sexism. Discuss the implications of these
findings in relation to issues of personal decision-making about gender appropriate behavior. Be
prepared to present your results to the class.
Research Project 6.2—Gender Role Stereotyping on Television
Objective. Students will be able to assess the power of the media to influence gender roles and
sexism in industrialized countries.
Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; 3 to 4 hours.
Directions. In this project, you will be required to evaluate three prime-time television shows for
gender role stereotyping. Pick three shows between 8:00 P.M. and 9:00 P.M. EST that children
might watch. For each show record the following information: (1) number of male and female
main characters; (2) occupations of main male and female characters; (3) thematic connections
IM 6 | 20
between males and females (e.g., female in distress and male as rescuer); (4) personality
characteristics of one male and one female from the show (use the Bem androgyny scale to
determine masculinity, femininity, or androgyny). Use the data sheet in “Student Handouts” to
record the following information. Then answer the questions that follow.
Program ___________________
Male_____ Female_____
Number of male and female characters
_____________________________________________________
Occupations of male and female characters
__________________________________________________
Connections between males and females
____________________________________________________
Gender Classifications of males and females
________________________________________________
1.
In the shows you watched, did males or females take more main roles? What kinds of
occupations did the males have? What kinds of occupations did the females have? Were
there status differences in the occupations of the males and females? What were they?
2.
What kinds of themes connected the males and females in the television programs you
watched? Were the themes stereotyped for male-female relationships?
3.
What were the sex-typed categories of the males portrayed on television (masculine, crosssexed, androgynous)?
4.
What were the sex-typed categories of the females portrayed on television?
5.
What do you think these models are teaching adolescents about being a male or a female in
our society? Are they fair representations of the way women and men act in the real world?
Examine the data overall, looking at: (1) the relative number of males and females in
primary roles; (2) the relative status of the males’ and females’ occupations; (3) the thematic
relationships presented between males and females, and the extent to which these tie into sex
stereotyping; and (4) the relative presentation of androgynous, cross-sexed, and sex-stereotyped
males and females on television. Examine specific programs for differences.
Wrap-Up. Present your information from the research project to the class.
To the Instructor. You may want to discuss the following questions:
1.
Are some shows more stereotyped than others?
2.
In the stereotyped programs, is one sex portrayed as more advantageous than the other?
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3.
How do the class data relate to the data on stereotypes presented in the text?
4.
If the programs generally support gender-role stereotypes, how does this affect the
developing child?
5.
If males are presented as the more interesting and preferred sex, could this account for the
tomboyish behavior of girls? How?
ESSAY QUESTIONS
Provide students with the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before they respond to
these questions. Answers to these types of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and
apply ideas discussed in this chapter.
1.
What evidence supports the conclusion that both nature and nurture influence gender roles?
Discuss and evaluate the evidence presented in Adolescence.
2.
Explain how the attitudes and behavior of educators influence the gender roles
demonstrated by female students.
3.
Do the mass media influence gender roles? Provide specific examples that support the
conclusion for a causal influence.
4.
Compare and contrast the cognitive developmental and the gender schema theories of
gender typing.
5.
Define the concept of gender-role stereotype and discuss whether stereotypes influence the
development of gender roles among adolescence.
6.
Discuss warnings about the nature and significance of gender differences and indicate the
nature and causes of gender differences, as they are understood today.
7.
Define androgyny and gender role transcendence and explain why some researchers prefer
one or the other concept.
8.
Does the traditional masculine role promote problem behavior among adolescent males?
Cite and evaluate the evidence.
9.
Explain why Carol Gilligan and others have developed a distinct feminist perspective on
female gender role development.
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10.
Compare and contrast women and men’s gender issues.
References
Butler, J. P. (1999). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. New York: Routledge.
Kindlon, D. J. (2000). Raising Cain: Protecting the emotional life of boys. New York: Ballantine
Publishing Group.
VIDEO
Girls and Body Image (VAD)
Overview
As females and males experience the many physical and social changes of early adolescence,
they come to terms with new definitions of their gender roles. Some theorists and researchers
have proposed that, with the onset of puberty, girls and boys experience an intensification in
gender-related expectations, and that this intensification decreases in mid- to late adolescence.
The gender intensification hypothesis states that psychological and behavioral differences
between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence because of increased
socialization pressures to conform to traditional masculine and feminine gender roles. Puberty
may signal to parents, peers, and teachers that an adolescent is approaching adulthood and should
begin to act in stereotypical male or female ways. However, not every female and male shows
gender intensification during puberty, and the family context influences how strongly gender
intensification occurs. Some experts argue that the jury is still out as to whether the gender
intensification hypothesis is valid. In this segment, two 14-year-old girls comment on the
behavior of some of the girls they know.
Pre-Test
1. According to the gender intensification hypothesis,
a. psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater
during late adolescence.
Incorrect. These differences become greater during early adolescence.
b. all adolescents show an increase in conformity to stereotypical gender roles.
Incorrect. Not every boy or girl shows gender intensification at this stage of development.
c. girls become more feminine and boys more masculine during puberty and early
adolescence.
Correct. The gender intensification hypothesis proposes that male and female roles are
emphasized at this stage of development.
d. girls become more “tomboyish” at puberty and gradually become more feminine in
mid- to late adolescence.
Incorrect. The hypothesis holds that girls become more feminine and boys more masculine
during puberty and early adolescence.
Post-Test
1. The 14-year-old girls in the video described other girls as being overly concerned with their
appearance and not wanting to answer questions in class because they would look “nerdy.”
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Assuming that the girls interviewed do not engage in these behaviors, we might expect that they
are
a. involved in gender intensification.
Incorrect. These girls do not exhibit gender intensification, and appear to look down on peers
who do.
b. among those adolescents who do not exhibit gender intensification.
Correct. These girls do not exhibit gender intensification, and appear to look down on peers who
do.
c. well past puberty.
Incorrect. Being past puberty would not necessarily determine how an adolescent would behave
in this domain.
d. lesbians.
Incorrect. The video and textbook do not mention any connection between lesbianism and the
presence or absence of gender intensification in early adolescence.
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