LECTURE DELIVERED TO UNIVERSITY/COLLEGE TEACHERS AT REGIONAL CENTRE
HIGHER EDUCATION COMMISSION, LAHORE 23- SEPTEMBER, 2004
FIELDWORK TECHNIQUES AND REPORT WRITING
Safdar Ali Shirazi
Assistant Professor
Department of Geography
University of the Punjab
LAHORE
Introduction:
Change has been witnessed throughout the long development of geography and there
have been a number of different phases or trends in the discipline. Throughout all this
change over the centuries, however, a few things have remained constant. For one, the
subject matter of geography has not really changed. Since the time of the ancient Greeks;
geographers have been concerned with the Earth's surface as the home of mankind.
Something else that has not changed is the fact that geography has always been a
discipline of observation. Observation is simply the most basic way of understanding the
fundamental components of geography and geographers have been the observers for
centuries. Homer and other Greeks who observed their surroundings and wrote about
them are today recognized as geographers as much as they are by other disciplines.
Observation has formally been incorporated into geography through FIELDWORK.
Fieldwork is nothing more than systematic observation by a geographer of his or her
subject matter. Anyone can do fieldwork and every good geographer does. Virtually
anyone can do it because fieldwork is, at its most fundamental, just going out and looking
at the land .All the training you need is knowing what to look for -knowing what to look
for involves training in your respective area of specialization (Physical or Human).
Field Work in Geography (Paper C)
Objectives:
To inculcate in students the analytical approach towards their geographical environment
through field study/work of a selected area. Fieldwork thus forms an important part of
geographical learning. Both degree and post-graduate syllabi include compulsory
fieldwork as an integral part of their assessment procedure. Fieldwork is important to
geography because it contributes so fundamentally to geographical research and to our
basic understanding of the Earth's surface.
Planning a Fieldwork:
Many of the geography fieldwork rely upon primary data collection by means of
QUESTIONNAIRE Surveys. Following are some of the guidelines for the conduct,
design and organization of these fieldworks.
1) When planning a fieldwork do not be over ambitious. Avoid the temptation of
covering everything that seems interesting. Collect only that data which will be
used.
2) Target population: Define the population that will be interviewed (respondents),
e.g.adults, male, female, dependent or chief earner of household or any particular
section of the sample population.
3) Sampling: Decide upon the method of sampling. The object of this exercise is to
gain a representative group of the defined population. Three sampling techniques
are commonly employed :(a) Random sampling-This is the only method where
every element of the population has an equal chance of selection. Alternatively if
the data are in a list, e.g.voter’s list, the random numbers can be used to select the
respondents from the list. (b) Systematic sampling: This is usually quicker than
random sampling and is often equally suitable. If the data are in a list then the
information should be taken regularly, every sixth item for example. (c) Stratified
sample: This is appropriate where the data are divided in to different sections or
strata. For example, data about human population may be divided up into sex
composition or in various age groups. Having identified the strata the sample may
then be taken by random or systematic methods.
4) Sample size: For most field works it will be impossible to carry out a large
survey, but generalizing about 5 or 10 percent respondents is very dangerous as
answers are likely to be typical and unrepresentative. Therefore, aim for about 20
to 30 percent as the sample, which should be enough to permit some statistical
analysis.
5) Questionnaire design: There are many types of questionnaires. They can vary
enormously in term of their purpose, their size and their appearance. To qualify as
a research questionnaire, however, they should: a) be designed to collect
information which can be used subsequently as data for analysis. (b) Consist of a
written list of questions(c) Gather information by asking people directly [straight
from the horse’s mouth]
A) When it appropriate to use a questionnaire for research?
I) When used with large number of respondents in many localities;
II) When what is required tends to be straightforward information-relatively
brief and uncontroversial;
II) When social climate is open enough to allow full and honest answers;
B) What kinds of data are collected by questionnaires?
I) Questionnaires rely on written information supplied directly by people in
response to questions asked by the researcher.
A) Factual information does not require much in the way of judgment or
personal attitudes on the part of respondents. It just requires respondents to
reveal (accurately and honestly) information: their address, age, sex,
marital status, number of children etc.
B) Opinions, attitudes, views, beliefs, preferences etc. can also be
investigated using questionnaires.
C) Planning the use of questionnaires: The successful use questionnaire
depends on devoting the right balance of effort to the planning stages,
rather than rushing too early into distributing the questionnaire. If the
questionnaire is to produce worthwhile results, the researcher needs to
have a clear plan of action in mind and some reasonable idea of the Costs,
Production, Organization, Schedule and Permission.
D) Essentials for questionnaire design:
The questionnaire should have some information about:
I)
The sponsor [under whose auspices is the research being undertaken?]
II)
The purpose [what is the questionnaire for, and how will the
information be used?]
III)
Return address and date.
IV)
Confidentiality.
V)
Voluntary responses.
VI)
Thanks.
E) Types of questions: There are a variety of ways in which questions can be
put in a questionnaire.
I)
Open and closed questions: open questions are those that leave the
respondent to decide the wording of the answer, the length of the
answer and the kind of matters to be raised in the answer .The open
questions tend to be short and the answers tend to be long. For
example, where do you usually shop for groceries? And then provide a
number of empty lines, which invite the respondent to enter his or her
thought on the question. Closed questions, where answers are
predetermined by a set of categories, such as, how long have you lived
in this village? (i) less than 1 year (ii) 1-5 years (iii) more than 5 years.
Some time the option can be restricted to as few as two (e.g. Yes or No
OR Male or Female)
F) Conducting the interview: Door to door interviews can seem
intimidating, but they offer a very successful means of gaining primary
data. At all time appear confident and well organized; slip-shod
presentation will only result in a high number of refusals or careless
answers. Before undertaking the survey inform the respondent who
you are and the purpose of the investigation. Above all, stress the
confidential nature of the inquiry.
Example of a Questionnaire: (Annexed)
REPORT WRITING
Objectives:
By the end of this lecture you should be able to :
• Understand the purposes of a report
• Plan a report
• Understand the structure of a report
• Collect information for your report
• Organize your information
• Use an appropriate style of writing
• Present data effectively
• Understand how to lay out your information in an appropriate way
Contents:
• Writing reports
• Different types of reports
• Stages in report writing
• Terms of reference
• Planning your report
• Collecting information
• Organizing information
• Structuring your report
• Style of writing
• Layout
• Presentation
• Redrafting and checking
• Checklist
Writing Reports 2Dreports
Definition:
“A report is a statement of the results of an investigation or of any matter on which
definite information is required.”
(Oxford English Dictionary)
Reports are a highly structured form of writing often following conventions that have
been laid down to produce a common format. Structure and convention in written reports
stress the process by which the information was gathered as much as the information
itself.
Different Types of Reports:
During your time at university you may be asked to write different types of reports,
depending upon the subject area, which you have chosen. These could include laboratory
reports, technical reports, reports of a work placement or industrial visit, reports of a field
trip or fieldwork. Reports vary in their purpose, but all of them will require a formal
structure and careful planning, presenting the material in a logical manner using clear and
concise language.
Stages in Report Writing
The following section explores each stage in the development of your report, making
recommendations for structure and technique.
The following stages are involved in writing a report:
• Clarifying your terms of reference
• Planning your work
• Collecting your information
• Organizing and structuring your information
• Writing the first draft
• Checking and re-drafting.
Different type
Stages in report
Writing Reports 3
The terms of reference of a report are a guiding statement used to define the scope of
your investigation. You must be clear from the start what you are being asked to do. You
will probably have been given an assignment from your tutor but you may need to
discuss this further to find out the precise subject and purpose of the report. Why have
you been asked to write it? Knowing your purpose will help you to communicate your
information more clearly and will help you to be more selective when collecting your
information.
Planning your Report:
Careful planning will help you to write a clear, concise and effective report, giving
adequate time to each of the developmental stages prior to submission.
• Consider the report as a whole
• Break down the task of writing the report into various parts.
• How much time do you have to write the report?
• How can this be divided up into the various planning stages?
• Set yourself deadlines for the various stages.
Draw up an outline structure for your report and set the work within a sensible time scale
for completion by the given deadline. Some of the most time-consuming parts of the
process are collecting and selecting your information, and checking and revising your
report.
Collecting Information:
There are a number of questions you need to ask yourself at this stage: • What is the information you need?
• Where do you find it?
• How much do you need?
• How shall you collect it?
• In what order will you arrange it?
You may have much of the information you need already such as results from a
laboratory experiment or descriptions of your methods of data collection. However, there
may be other material, which is needed such as background information on other research
studies, or literature surveys. You may need to carry out some interviews or make a visit
to the university library to collect all the information you need.
• Make a list of what information you need.
• Make an action plan stating how you are going to gather this.
Taking notes.
We discussed earlier that there are different types of report such as laboratory reports or
reports on an industrial placement. Always check with the person commissioning the
report (your tutor/ field supervisor) to find out precisely what your report should include
and how it should be presented. The following common elements can be found in many
different reports:
Structuring
REPORT WRITING
Writing Reports 6
• Title page
• Acknowledgements
• Contents
• Abstract or summary
• Introduction
• Methodology
• Results or findings
• Discussion
• Conclusion and recommendations
• References
• Appendices
We shall now look at each of these in turn.
Title page:
This should include the title of the report (which should give a precise indication of the
subject matter), the author’s name, module/ course and the date (in completed year).
Acknowledgements:
You should acknowledge any help you have received in collecting the information for the
report. This may be from the local people, government officials, librarians, technicians or
computer center staff, for example.
Contents:
You should list all the main sections of the report in sequence with the page numbers they
begin on. If there are charts, diagrams or tables included in your report, these should be
listed separately under a title such as ‘List of Illustrations’ together with the page
numbers on which they appear.
Abstract or summary:
This should be a short paragraph summarizing the main contents of the report. It should
include a short statement of the main task, the methods used, conclusions reached and
any recommendations to be made. The abstract or summary should be concise,
informative and independent of the report.
WRITE THIS SECTION AFTER YOU HAVE WRITTEN THE REPORT.
Writing Reports 7
Introduction:
This should give the context and scope of the report and should include your terms of
reference. State your objectives clearly, define the limits of the report, outline the method
of enquiry, give a brief general background to the subject of the report and indicate the
proposed development.
Methodology:
In this section you should state how you carried out your enquiry. What form did your
enquiry take? Did you carry out interviews or questionnaires, how did you collect your
data? What measurements did you make? How did you choose the subjects for your
interviews? Present this information logically and concisely.
Results or findings:
Present your findings in as simple a way as possible. The more complicated the
information looks, the more difficult it will be to interpret. There are a number of ways in
which results can be presented.
Here are a few:
• Tables
• Graphs
• Pie charts
• Bar charts
• Diagrams
Illustration checklist:
• Are all your diagrams / illustrations clearly labelled?
• Do they all have titles?
• Is the link between the text and the diagram clear?
• Are the headings precise?
• Are the axes of graphs clearly labelled?
• Can tables be easily interpreted?
• Have you abided by any copyright laws when including illustrations/tables
published documents?
Writing Reports 8
Discussion:
from
This is the section where you can analyze and interpret your results drawing from the
information, which you have collected, explaining its significance.
Identify important issues and suggest explanations for your findings. Outline any
problems encountered and try and present a balanced view.
Conclusions and recommendations:
This is the section of the report, which draws together the main issues. It should be
expressed clearly and should not present any new information. You may wish to list your
recommendations in separate section or include them with the conclusions.
References:
It is important that you give precise details of all the work by other authors which has
been referred to within the report. Details should include:
• author’s name and initials
• date of publication
• title of the book, paper or journal
• publisher
• place of publication
• page numbers
• details of the journal volume in which the article has appeared.
References should be listed in alphabetical order of the authors' names. Make sure that
your references are accurate and comprehensive.
Appendices:
An appendix contains additional information related to the report but which is not
essential to the main findings. This can be consulted if the reader wishes but the report
should not depend on this. You could include details of interview questions, statistical
data, a glossary of terms, or other information, which may be useful for the reader.
Writing Reports 9
Style of writing
There are several points that you will need to consider when you are writing your report:
Active or passive?
Your tutor will be able to advise whether the report should be written in the ‘active’ or
‘passive’ voice.
The active voice reads as follows:
‘I recommend ...’
The passive voice reads:
‘It is recommended that ...’
The active voice allows you to write short, punchy sentences.
The passive appears more formal and considered. Be aware of these differences and
avoid mixing the two voices.
Simplicity:
Most written reports should avoid using overly complicated language. If a report is to
persuade, brief or justify, its message must be clear. Furthermore, the factual presentation
of data should not be swamped with sophisticated, lengthy sentences. Avoid using
unnecessary jargon. This confuses even the most informed reader. Ensure that your
abbreviations are standardized. All too often authors invent their own jargon to ease the
pressure on writing things in full. Be cautious of confusing your reader.
Use of language:
Reports should be written in the languages, which are used as the medium of instruction
in the classroom.
Writing Reports 10
Layout
Most reports have a progressive numbering system.
The most common system is the decimal notation system.
The main sections are given single arabic numbers 1, 2, 3 and so on.
Sub-sections are given a decimal number - 1.1, 1.2,
1.3 and so on.
Sub-sections can be further divided into - 1.11, 1.12,
1.13 and so on.
An example structure would look as follows;
1. Introduction
1.1 ———————1.11 ———————1.2 ———————1.21 ———————2. Methodology
2.1 ———————2.11 ———————2.12 ———————-
Presentation:
The following suggestions will help you to produce an easily read report:
• Leave wide margins for binding and feedback comments from your tutor.
• Paragraphs should be short and concise.
• Headings should be clear - highlighted in bold or underlined.
• All diagrams and illustrations should be labelled and numbered.
• All standard units, measurements and technical terminology should be listed in a
glossary of terms at the back of your report.
Presentation
Writing Reports 11
Redrafting and Checking:
Once you have written the first draft of your report you will need to check it through. It is
probably sensible to leave it on your desk for a day or so if you have the time. This will
make a clear break from the intensive writing period, allowing you to view your work
more objectively.
Assess your work in the following areas:
• Structure
• Content
• Style
Look at the clarity and precision of your work. Use the report-writing checklist at the end
of this section to check your report.
You may like to carry out a more formal evaluation. Use the section. Assessing yourself
to help you draft assessment criteria and evaluate your work.
Summery:
The skills involved in writing a report will help you to condense and focus information,
drawing objective findings from detailed data. The ability to express yourself clearly and
succinctly is an important skill and is one that can be greatly enhanced by approaching
each report in a planned and focused way.
Checklist:
Redrafting
• Title page
Does this include the Title?
Author’s name?
Module/course details?
• Acknowledgements
Have you acknowledged all sources of help?
• Contents
Have you listed all the main sections in sequence?
Have you included a list of illustrations?
• Abstract or summary
Does this state:
The main task?
The methods used?
The conclusions reached?
The recommendations made?
• Introduction
Does this include?
Your terms of reference?
The limits of the report?
An outline of the method?
A brief background to the subject matter?
• Methodology
Does this include:
The form your enquiry took?
The way you collected your data?
• Reports and findings
Are your diagrams clear and simple?
Are they clearly labelled?
Do they relate closely to the text?
• Discussion
Have you identified key issues?
Have you suggested explanations for your findings?
Have you outlined any problems encountered?
Have you presented a balanced view?
Checklist
Writing Reports 13
• Conclusions and recommendations
Have you drawn together all of your main ideas?
Have you avoided any new information?
Are any recommendations clear and concise?
• References
Have you listed all references alphabetically?
Have you included all the necessary information?
Are your references accurate?
• Appendices
Have you only included supporting information?
Does the reader need to read these sections?
• Writing style
Have you used clear and concise language?
Are your sentences short and jargon free/
Are your paragraphs tightly focused?
Have you used the active or the passive voice?
• Layout
Have you clearly labelled each section?
Is your labelling consistent throughout the report?
• Presentation
Have you left sufficient margin space for binding/feedback?
Are your headings clear?
Have you checked your spelling?
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1) Boyce J and Ferretti J (1985) Fieldwork in Geography
London: Cambridge University Press
2) Gay L.R (1996) Educational Research 5th ed.
Ohaio: Merrill Publisher
3) Sheskin I.M (1987) Survey Research for Geographers
Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers
4) Mattews M.H and Foster I.D.L (1987) Fieldwork Exercises in Human and
Physical Geography London: Edward Arnold
5) Denscombe M (2003) The Good Research Guide 2nd ed.
Glasgow: Open University Press
6) Hoggart K, Lees L and Davies A (2002) Researching Human Geography
London: Arnold Publishers
7) Jones P A (1968) Fieldwork in Geography
London: Longmans