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Lecture on Progressivism
I.
Grassroots Progressivism
“What motivated comfortable, middle-class women and men to undertake the series of reforms that
together constituted one of the major movements for social and political reform in U. S. history? There is
no one answer because there is no single progressive profile. The “progressives,” as they called
themselves, were a diverse group with a variety of goals…” (James L. Roark, The American Promise, 802803).
For some, the sense of Christian mission inspired them; others, feared social upheaval unless something
were done
Most shared a strong dislike of the growing power of big business, the power of the wealthy, and the
influence of the trusts
However, they often feared the new immigrants and so wanted to control and “Americanize” them
Progressive reform began at the bottom (or the grassroots level) and worked its way up to national politics
as progressive reformers attacked the social problems brought on by industrialization
The progressives were loudest in the urban areas, the very centers of industrial America, where they sought
to civilize the cities
a. Civilizing the City
“Progressive reform efforts were multifaceted, and reformers of many stripes participated in the campaign
to civilize the city. Typically, progressives attacked the problems of the city on many fronts: The settlement
house movement attempted to bridge the distance between the classes; the social gospel called for the
churches to play a new role in social reformation; and the social purity movement campaigned to clean up
vice, particularly prostitution” (James L. Roark, The American Promise, 803).
Adopted from England, the settlement house movement came to America in 1886 and saw middle class
people going and living in poorer neighborhoods in an effort to help promote solutions to urban problems
in the areas where answers were most needed
Women formed the backbone of the movement, and, because educated females often found themselves
blocked in the professions by sex discrimination, helped it grow from just 6 settlements in 1891 to over 400
by 1911. In the process, these women, such as Jane Addams who founded Hull-house in Chicago, created
the new profession of social work
Churches also got involved in progressivism by preaching a new “social gospel” that sought to not just
reform individuals but society as well
On a simple level, the social gospel offered a powerful corrective to the Gospel of Wealth. Men such as
Charles L. Seldon, in his popular 1898 book, In His Steps, called on men and women to Christianize
capitalism by asking the question “What would Jesus do?”
Ministers also played an active role in the social purity movement. Progressives argued that poverty bred
prostitution and so demanded higher wages for workers. They also denounced prostitution as a social evil
and employed doctors to inform people about the spreading of venereal disease.
Attacks on alcohol went hand in glove with the push for social purity; reformers such as the WCTU and the
Anti-Saloon League pointed to the links connecting drink with prostitution, wife and child abuse,
unemployment, and industrial accidents
The progressives’ efforts to civilize the city demonstrated their belief both possible and desirable to
improve society
b. Progressives and the Working Class
“Day-to-day contact with their neighbors made settlement house workers particularly sympathetic to labor
unions….During the Pullman strike in 1894, Hull House residents organized strike relief and lent their
prestige and financial resources to the strike. ‘Hull-House has been so unionized,’ grumbled one Chicago
businessman, ‘that it has lost its usefulness and become a detriment and harm to the community.’ But to the
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working class, the support of middle-class reformers marked a significant gain” (James L. Roark, The
American Promise, 805).
Again, women played a huge role in promoting cross-class unity in creating better conditions for workers;
for example, the Women’s Trade Union League (WTUL), and the International Ladies’ Garment Workers
Union (ILGWU) went on strike in 1909, protesting low wages, dangerous and demeaning work conditions,
and management’s refusal to recognize their union. Ultimately, the strike was broken, but it did show that
workers and middle class progressives could organize effectively together
The National Consumers League, formed in 1899 and led by Florence Kelley, also fostered cross-class
alliance by advocating middle-class women to boycott stores and exert pressure on the government for
decent wages and working conditions for women employees
This tendency to seek protective legislation became a hallmark of progressivism. Its critics would later
argue that the progressives assumed too easily that social problems could best be solved by government
regulation
II.
Progressivism: Theory and Practice
“Progressive reformers developed a new theoretical basis for their activist approach by countering social
Darwinism with a dynamic new reform Darwinism and by championing the uniquely American philosophy
of pragmatism” (James L. Roark, The American Promise, 809).
a. Reform Darwinism and Pragmatism
“The active, interventionist approach of the progressives directly challenged social Darwinism, with its
insistence that the world operated on the principle of survival of the fittest and that human beings were
powerless in the face of the natural law of selection. Without abandoning the evolutionary framework of
Darwinism, a new group of sociologists argued that evolution could be advanced more rapidly if men and
women used their intellects to alter the environment” (James L. Roark, The American Promise, 811).
Called “reform Darwinism,” the new sociological theory condemned laissez-faire policies and argued for a
much increased role for the government in solving social problems
Made up of physicians, businesspeople, scientists, engineers, and social workers, this group of urban
progressives championed the scientific method and promoted efficiency, seeking scientific solutions to
social problems
William James and John Dewy had a huge impact on this group by putting forth their pluralistic, relativistic
theory called pragmatism. A pioneer in American education, Dewey emphasized process rather than
content and encouraged more child-centered schools where students learned by doing.
By championing social experimentation, the American pragmatists provided an important impetus for
progressive reform
b. Scientific Management and the cult of Efficiency
“Increased emphasis on means as well as ends marked progressive reform. Efficiency and expertise
became watchwords in the progressive vocabulary. The journalist and critic Walter Lippmann, in Drift and
Mastery (1914), a classic statement of the progressive agenda, called for skilled technocrats who would use
scientific techniques to control social change, substituting mastery for aimless drift” (James L. Roark, The
American Promise, 811).
While Populism had called for a greater voice for the masses, progressivism, for all its emphasis on social
justice, insisted that experts be put in charge
At its extreme, the application of expertise and social engineering took the form of scientific management,
which alienated the working class while elevating productivity and efficiency above all other
considerations. Frederick Winslow Taylor pioneered this effort.
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III.
Progressivism Finds a President: Theodore Roosevelt
“An activist and a moralist, imbued with progressive spirit, Roosevelt would turn the White House into a
‘bully pulpit’ and, in the process, shift the nation’s center of power from Wall Street to Washington”
(James L. Roark, The American Promise, 813).
a. The Square Deal
“At the age of forty-two, Roosevelt was the youngest man ever to move into the White House. A patrician
by birth and an activist by temperament, Roosevelt brought to the job tremendous talent and energy….The
‘absolutely vital question’ facing the country, Roosevelt wrote to a friend in 1901, was ‘whether or not the
government has the power to control the trusts’” (James L. Roark, The American Promise, 802-803).
Roosevelt earned himself the reputation of being a trustbuster by using the Sherman Act against 43 trusts,
including such giants as the American Tobacco Company, Swift and Company, and Standard Oil
Roosevelt’s actions as president demonstrated that government intended to act independently to provide a
countervailing force to the power of the big corporations. Pleased with his role in the anthracite strike, he
announced that all he had tried to do was give labor and capital a “square deal,” a slogan that would carry
his election in 1904 (Mckinley was shot in 1901)
b. Roosevelt and Regulation
“’Tomorrow I shall come into my office in my own right,’ Roosevelt is said to have remarked on the eve of
his election. ‘Then watch out for me!’ The conservative Republicans who had helped to elect him intended
to do just that. No longer under the illusion that Roosevelt would continue McKinley’s role as a silent
partner to business interests, they reassured themselves that Congress remained firmly in the grip of
conservative, standpat Republicans. The old guard in the Senate was led by Nelson Aldrich of Rhode
Island, who was called ‘the senator from Standard Oil’ (an alliance cemented when his daughter married
John D. Rockefeller Jr.). In an era when state legislatures still chose U. S. senators, like Aldrich openly
served business interests. The old guard stood squarely in the path of Roosevelt and reform” (James L.
Roark, The American Promise, 816).
Roosevelt was a very effective compromiser and so was able to guide his reform measure through the
Conservative Congress where others might have come up short
His pet project was railroad regulation and as such he wanted to restore power to the ICC that had seen
much of its influence stripped by the Supreme Court He did this by passing the Hepburn Railway Act
(1906), which gave the ICC power to set railroad rates subject to court review. It wasn’t entirely effective
b/c it gave the court’s too much power, but its passage was a landmark in the evolution of federal control of
private industry. For the first time, a government commission had the power to investigate private business
records and to set rates.
c. Roosevelt and Big Business
“When a sharp business panic developed in the fall of 1907, business interests quickly blamed the
president. The panic of 1907 proved to be severe but short. Once again, J. P. Morgan stepped in to avert
disaster, switching funds from one bank to another to prop up weak institutions and keep them from failing.
For his services, he claimed as a prize the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company, an independent steel
business that had long been coveted by his U. S. Steel” (James L. Roark, The American Promise, 818).
Roosevelt agreed not to enact antitrust legislation against J. P. Morgan’s acquisition on a “gentleman’s
word” when the finance banker extraordinaire told him that the sale of the company would aid the economy
but little benefit U. S. Steel….not entirely true!
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Actually some enlightened business leaders, such as Morgan found federal regulation preferable to
unbridled competition….b/c oftentimes they would participate in the creation of regulatory legislation,
while at the same time, brown nosing the president, hoping to avoid antitrust legislation
He was very progressive though in securing a 100 million more acres and turning them into national parks
and the like, stepping on the toes of every major interest group in the West. Today, 6 national parks, 16
national monuments, and 51 wildlife refuges stand as witness to Roosevelt’s substantial accomplishments
as a conservationist
d. Roosevelt the Diplomat
“A man who relished military discipline and viewed life as a constant conflict for supremacy, Roosevelt
believed that the ‘civilized nations’ should police the world and hold the ‘backward’ countries in line”
(James L. Roark, The American Promise, 819).
Roosevelt relied on military strength combined with diplomacy, aptly described with his famous aphorism
“Speak softly but carry a big stick”
He vigorously upheld the Monroe Doctrine, almost going to war with Germany in 1902 over Venezuela
His paternalistic and sense of ownership toward the western hemisphere was evident in his Panama Canal
project (which would link the Caribbean to the Pacific and effectively double the nation’s naval power)
The land in Panama actually belonged to the Columbian government and so when they refused to sell,
Roosevelt engineered an uprising, the government of whom the State Dept. recognized within 24 hours and
the contract was signed! The episode became a national disgrace.
Roosevelt pursued an Open Door policy with regards china, insofar as he sought to maintain Chinese
territorial integrity and guarantee the US an equal share with the European powers in trade and investment
rather than just going in and trying to take over themselves
Also, in order to show Japan (who was also getting expansionist ideas of their own) what the US was
capable of, Roosevelt dispatched the “Great White Fleet,” the navy’s most up-to-date battleships, on a
“goodwill” mission around the world. This show of force was a classic example of speak softly but carry a
big stick
e. The Troubled Presidency of Howard Taft
“When Roosevelt retired from the presidency in 1909 at the age of fifty to go on safari and shoot big game
in Africa, he turned the White House over to his handpicked successor, William Howard Taft. Any man
would have found it difficult to follow in Roosevelt’s footsteps, but Taft proved hopelessly ill-suited to the
task” (James L. Roark, The American Promise, 823).
Taft saw his role as being to conserve the gains made by Roosevelt and not to push ahead for more reforms.
With the country wanting more, Taft was badly out of tune with the people
He also took on the tariff issue (something that Roosevelt had been astute enough to avoid) saying that
rates needed to be lowered….the Conservative Congress got hold of it and actually raised the
rates…leading many to attack Taft for having engineered a triumph for big business over consumers
Owing in no small part to the tariff controversy Taft was swept out of office in 1912, and in rolled the
Progressive Democrat Woodrow Wilson, who promised to use antitrust legislation to get rid of big
corporations
IV.
Woodrow Wilson and Progressivism at High Tide
“Born in Virginia and raised in Georgia, Woodrow Wilson was the first Southerner to be elected president
since James K. Polk (in 1844) and only the second Democrat to occupy the White house since
Reconstruction. Before he was finished, Wilson would preside over progressivism at high tide and see
enacted not only the platform of the Democratic Party but the humanitarian reforms championed by
Roosevelt’s Progressive Party as well ” (James L. Roark, The American Promise, 827-828).
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a. Tariff and Banking Reform
“In March 1913, Wilson, proud of his ability as an orator, became the first president since John Adams to
go to Capitol Hill and speak directly to Congress, calling for tariff reform. ‘The object of the tariff,’ Wilson
told his audience, ‘must be effective competition.’ Eager to topple the high tariff, the Democratic House of
Representatives hastily passed the Underwood tariff, which lowered rates by 15 percent” (James L. Roark,
The American Promise, 828).
To compensate for the loss of revenues, Congress also passed a modest income tax, made possible by the
ratification of the 16th amendment a month earlier
A mandate for banking reform was made possible by the Pujo Committee, a congressional body led by
Senator Arsene Pujo from Louisiana, which had unearthed an alarming concentration of banking power that
had developed as a result of mergers. For example, J. P. Morgan and Company and its affiliates held
341directorships in 112 corporations, controlling assets of more than $22 billion
Probably Wilson’s most significant piece of domestic legislation, the Federal Reserve Act, passed in 1913
as a result of the outcry, established a national banking system composed of regional banks (12) under the
direction of a Federal Reserve Board appointed by the president. It gave the US its first efficient banking
system and, at the same time, provided for a larger degree of government control over banking than had
existed before
b. Wilson and the Trusts
“Flushed with success, Wilson tackled the trust issue. When Congress reconvened in January 1914, Wilson
supported the Clayton bill to outlaw interlocking directorates (directors from one corporation sitting on the
board of another) and unfair practices. By spelling out which practices were unfair, Wilson hoped to guide
business activity back to healthy competition without resorting to regulation” (James L. Roark, The
American Promise, 829).
Unfortunately, the Clayton Act did not succeed in breaking the alliance of business and the judiciary; the
courts continued to issue injunctions and to use antitrust legislation against labor unions
Wilson created the FTC in 1913 which not only had wide investigatory powers but the authority to
prosecute corporations for “unfair business practices” – Wilson’s antitrust program worked to regulate,
rather than break up big business
In the fall of 1914, Wilson declared progressivism to be over and sought to heal the rift with big business
and banking by making conservative appointments to the regulatory bodies. The progressives were not
pleased
c. Wilson, Reluctant Progressive
“Progressives watched in dismay as Wilson repeatedly obstructed or obstinately refused to encourage
further progressive reforms. He failed to support labor’s demand for an end to injunctions and for a
promise to exempt unions from prosecution under antitrust laws as conspiracies ‘in restraint of trade.’ He
twice threatened to veto legislation providing for farm credits on non-perishable crops. He refused to
support child labor legislation or woman suffrage, he vetoed legislation sponsored by labor to curb
immigration” (James L. Roark, The American Promise, 830).
Even though he had declared progressivism over just a couple of years earlier, Wilson realized by 1916 that
if he was going to be reelected he would have to adopt more progressive reforms, so he cultivated social
reformers, farmers, and union labor
He passed the Keating-Owen Child Labor Law, and practically forced Congress to establish an 8 hour
working day at 10 hours a day wages on the railroads
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V.
The Limits of Reform
“Progressivism, no matter how much it challenged standpat conservatism, was never a radical movement.
Its goal remained the preservation of the existing system, by government intervention if necessary, but
without uprooting any of the traditional American political, economic, or social institutions.
Progressivism’s basic conservatism can be seen by comparing it to more radical movements of the era and
by looking at the groups that were left out of progressive reform” (James L. Roark, The American Promise,
830).
a. Radical Alternatives
“It was inevitable, given the turbulence of the times, that the progressivism of Roosevelt and Wilson would
be challenged by more radical voices. The most cogent criticism of progressivism came from American
socialists” (James L. Roark, The American Promise, 830).
The Socialist Party was formed in 1900 and, like the Progressives, were mostly middle-class and native
born. They chose Eugene V. Debs as their standard-bearer, who advocated cooperation to replace
competition and women to liberate themselves from the “barbarism of private ownership and wage slavery”
Debs declared “While there is a lower class, I am of it, while there is a criminal class, I am of it, while there
is a soul in prison, I am not free.”
Debs championed the cause of the working classes and was heavily influenced by both the social gospel
and by Karl Marx
In contrast to this political radical, Margaret Sanger, a nurse and social activist, promoted birth control as a
movement for radical change—she saw it as not only a sexual and medical reform but also as a means to
alter social and political power relationships to alleviate human misery. Sanger and her movement were
ruthlessly pursued by the government who feared her rhetoric might spark “race suicide”
b. Progressivism for White Men Only
“The day before President Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration in March, 1913, more than five thousand
demonstrators marched in Washington to demand the vote for women. The march served as a reminder that
the political gains of progressivism were not spread equally in the population. When the twentieth century
dawned, women could still not vote in most states” (James L. Roark, The American Promise, 833).
Alice Paul set up the National Woman’s Party (NWP), which became the radical voice of the suffrage
movement, advocating direct action and civil disobedience.
Paul and her followers pushed for a constitutional amendment (Susan B. Anthony amendment) to provide
women with the vote. The NAWSA grew from this movement. When America joined the Great War in
1917, Paul and the NAWSA refused to support the war effort, saying that democracy must first start at
home. The Nineteenth Amendment was finally passed in 1920.
One of the most chilling facts about the Progressive platform was that it preached disenfranchisement of
black voters as “reform.” For example, in many southern states poll taxes were passed, literacy tests too
(which also served to take the vote from some poor whites, which was soon bypassed with the “grandfather
clause”)
As a corollary of this racist “progressive” platform, the supreme court upheld racial segregation so long as
it was “equal” with the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) case
Wilson was the first president to segregate the White House
c. Progressivism in perspective
“The limitations of progressive reform should not obscure its very real achievements. The progressive
movement brought significant gains as government moved away from laissez-faire and social Darwinism to
embrace a more active role designed to bring about social justice and to establish a better balance between
business and government” (James L. Roark, The American Promise, 838).
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Progressivism contained many paradoxes:
1. It began as a grassroots movement and yet left as its legacy a stronger presidency and
unprecedented federal involvement in the economy and social welfare
2. A movement that believed in social justice often promoted social control
3. While many progressives called for a greater democracy, they worshipped experts and
efficiency
4. All in all, however, progressivism attempted to deal with the problems posed by urban
industrialization and, by increasing the power of the government, helped to launch the liberal
state into the twentieth state