Decision-Making Training for
Occupational Choice and Early Turnover:
A Field Experiment
Asya Pazy, Yoav Ganzach, and Yariv Davidov
School of Business, Tel Aviv University
Published in: Career Development Internationa (2006), 11, 80-91
Correspondence address to Asya Pazy, The Leon Recanati Graduate School of Business
Administration, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel. asyap@post.tau.ac.il
2
Abstract
Purpose – The study examined how a short intervention, aimed at enhancing occupational
choice skills, influenced turnover during early stages of organizational membership. It explored
two theoretical rationales for this effect, social exchange and self-determination.
Methodology – The study is a "constructive replication" of previous research, and it employed a
similar field experimentation methodology. Groups of candidates in the Technical School of the
Israeli Air Force were randomly assigned to experimental (Decision Making Training) and
control groups. Perceived Organizational Support and turnover were measured at two points in
time.
Findings – The results showed that the intervention reduced turnover (relative to a control
group) as measured at two points in time – at the end of a technical training program and six
months later into their military service. Perceived Organizational Support was not enhanced by
the intervention. The experimental results were consistent with the self-determination
explanation more than with the social exchange explanation.
Practical implications - The practical benefits of Decision Making Training during early
encounters with the organization are discussed. Decision Making Training is recommended as an
effective tool during the career exploration phase, to facilitate the integration of self and
environment awareness and to enhance self-determined career goals.
Keywords – turnover, career management, early career, self determination, social exchange.
Classification – research note.
3
New entrants are highly responsive to organizational influence during their initial encounters
with the organization. The relative confusion and disorientation that characterize this phase
increase their susceptibility to cognitive-informational cues as well as to emotional and social
support cues (e.g., Louis, 1980; Morrison, 1993; Ostroff & Kozlowski, 1992). The majority of
studies that examined organizational entry interventions have focused on the cognitiveinformational aspects of these interventions, and confirmed the benefits of providing accurate
information early on. Considerable research shows that the Realistic Job Preview (termed RJP)
results in increasing commitment and reducing turnover (for reviews, see Meglino, Ravlin, &
DeNisi, 2000; Phillips, 1998).
However, the non-informational aspects of early organizational encounters are also
important (Wanous & Reichers, 2000). Information-free interventions were found to be similarly
effective to the Realistic Job Preview. For example, Buckley, Fedor, Veres, Wiese, & Carraher
(1998) showed that the benefits of an orientation program that focused on new entrants’ tendency
to inflate their early expectations and did not include any job information, were similar to those
of the informational (RJP) approach (Buckley, Mobbs, Mendoza, Novicevic, Carraher-Shawn, &
Beh , 2002). Another information-free intervention (called Decision Making Training, or DMT)
was similar to the Realistic Job Preview in its short-term increase of commitment (Ganzach,
Pazy, Ohayun & Brainin, 2002). DMT is a short program that helps new entrants to enhance
their skills in the usage of an occupational decision strategy.
The purpose of the present study is to examine the effectiveness of this information-free
intervention in increasing occupational commitment and reducing turnover among new entrants
during the early phase of their organizational career. An indication for such effectiveness was
found in a previous study which examined cognitive-informational and socio-emotional aspects
4
of various early phase interventions. While focusing primarily on RJP, a serendipitous finding
indicated that, though DMT and RJP had a similar short-term effect on commitment, DMT was
superior to RJP in its long-term effect (Ganzach et al, 2002). The present study focuses solely
on the DMT intervention. It aims to provide further evidence for the effect of DMT on
occupational commitment and to examine the theoretical rationale for this effect.
From a practical viewpoint, DMT promises several organizational and individual
advantages over information-based methods like RJP. First, DMT is an off-the-shelf, prepackaged program. As a content-free, skill-enhancing intervention, it is not tailored to specific
occupations or jobs in specific settings, and therefore does not require prior job analysis. RJP, on
the other hand, describes specific jobs and therefore requires a careful, situation-specific
collection of accurate data. Such an analysis is costly and time consuming, and often – because
of the flexible and changing character of many jobs – unfeasible (Cardy & Dobbins, 1986).
Second, RJP may not be suitable when recruitment is aimed at an overall fit with organizational
culture rather than a fit with a specific job (Bowen, Ledford, and Nathan, 1991). Being neither a
job- nor an organization- specific intervention, DMT offers flexibility and economy of scale in
addressing the recruitment needs of organizations. Third, evidence from Ganzach et al (2002)
indicates that, in the long run, the effectiveness of DMT in reducing turnover and maintaining
occupational commitment is more enduring than that of RJP. Finally, from the individual
employee point of view, DMT is a useful tool in the career exploration phase. It helps in the
integration of self and environment awareness, which, when properly managed, results in
personally effective goal setting (Greenhaus, Callanan, & Godshalk, 2000).
Theoretical considerations: From a theoretical viewpoint, two different rationales might
account for the effect of DMT on turnover and commitment: Social exchange and self-
5
determination. In terms of social exchange, the provision of DMT conveys concern. It seems to
be an indication that the organization cares about new entrants' ability to make occupational
choices that are personally appropriate for them, and that it actively supports the development of
this ability. Through a social exchange process, the perception of organizational support induces
reciprocation in the form of increased commitment to the party that initiated the exchange (Blau,
1964), and, as a result, decreases turnover. Abundant research shows a variety of positive
attitudinal and behavioral outcomes that result from a perception of organizational support
(Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986; Eisenberger, Cummings, Armeli, & Lynch,
1997; for a review, see Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). The social exchange argument is also
compatible with the view of training and development activities as benefits that contribute to
commitment and to willingness to remain with the organization (Bartlett, 2001; Birdi, Allen, &
Warr, 1997; Gaertner & Nollen, 1989; Lee & Bruvold, 2003; Meyer & Smith, 2000; Nordhaug,
1989). In sum, according to the social exchange rationale, DMT increases Perceived
Organizational Support, which in turn enhances commitment and reduces turnover.
The second explanation is based on the theory of self-determination. Social contexts that
support autonomous forms of self-regulation maintain and enhance intrinsic motivation; self
determined motivation prevents dropout (Ryan & Deci, 2002; Vallerand, Fortier & Guay, 1997).
According to this theoretical explanation, DMT reduces turnover through the binding effect of
choice behavior. The priming of volitional choice behavior, which is induced by DMT, enhances
commitment to the chosen course of action by a post-decisional dissonance reduction process
(Festinger, 1957). The long-term impact of DMT is the behavioral persistence that ensues from
free choice (Comer & Laird, 1975; O’Reilly & Caldwell, 1981) and self-determination
(Mossholder, 1980; Zuckerman, Porac, Lathin, Smith & Deci, 1978).
6
Incidentally, the theoretical rationale in Ganzach et al study was originally based on
social exchange, and self determination emerged ex post facto. Its results were not sufficient to
determine the relative validity of the two rationales, as their overall pattern lent partial support to
both1. In addition, the construct of Perceived Organization Support, the hypothesized mediator
of social exchange, was inferred, rather than measured, in that study.
The present field experiment is designed as a “constructive replication” (Eden, 2002;
Lykken, 1968) of one part of the previous study. By keeping the context – a military setting –
constant, but altering three significant aspects of the previous study, a replication can strengthen
confidence in the benefits of this intervention. The research hypothesis is that the provision of
DMT at an early phase of organizational career will decrease turnover compared to a control
group. The hypothesis derived from the social exchange model predicts that this effect will be
mediated by Perceived Organizational Support, while the self determination model predicts a
direct effect.
Method
In a constructive replication, the same hypothesized relationships among the same
theoretical constructs are tested, while varying their operationalization. We varied three such
aspects.
1
The stronger initial commitment among participants immediately after they received the DMT compared to
control participants was consistent with social exchange, but not compatible with self-determination. A selfdetermination model suggests differences in commitment later, as adherence to a decision is manifested after people
have encountered difficulties associated with their job. On the other hand, the self-determination explanation was
consistent with the lower turnover in the DMT compared to control groups (and to an RJP group), twenty months
after the intervention. At such a late time, reciprocation in exchange to an initial gesture is no longer relevant, but
lower turnover could be interpreted as adherence to an autonomously made choice in the face of difficulties
encountered along the way. Thus, the latter result was compatible with the self-determination view and incompatible
with the social exchange view Ganzach et al, 2002).
7
First, we varied the timing of the DMT provision and of its outcome measurement. In the
Ganzach et al study DMT was administered eight months prior to entering the organization. The
relatively long period that elapsed between the intervention and entry might have obscured a
sense-making interpretation. In the present study DMT is administered a few weeks after
organizational entry, upon entry into the particular route of training, and its effect is measured
twice, after 4 months and 10 months.
Second, whereas the sample in the previous study was drawn primarily from a highly
motivated population, the present sample is drawn primarily from the lower end of the
population, in terms of prior attitudes towards the organization. The dynamics of reducing
turnover among recruits whose initial level of commitment is low might be qualitatively different
than that needed to boost growing levels of commitment (Bretz & Judge, 1998).
Third, by measuring an additional variable, Perceived Organizational Support, the present
study can better distinguish between social exchange and self-determination. The social
exchange explanation suggests that the influence of DMT on turnover depends on enhanced
Perceived Organizational Support. On the other hand, the self-determination explanation
suggests that the provision of DMT reduces turnover without necessarily increasing the
perception of support.
Context and Procedure
The study was conducted in the technical school of the Israeli air force. The Israeli
Defense Forces requires that all candidates for military service go through an assessment process
in order to determine their physical, mental and motivational profiles prior to their enlistment.
Based on these profiles, the higher part of (male) candidates is usually assigned to combat
8
service, and the lower part – to support unit service. The sample of this study – candidates for
technical support in the air force – was drawn from the latter. A small percentage of these
candidates are vocational high school graduates. Among certain vocational high schools,
motivation for military service might be higher (Harel & Baruch, 1993)
Several weeks after their enlistment and basic training, candidates for technical
occupations participate in an "orientation and assessment week" in the technical school of the air
force. They are then admitted to training programs that last from one to five months (three
months on average). Upon completion of training, they serve in technical support, electronics, or
other maintenance–related jobs in an air force base. The training programs, as well as the
military technical service, are considered quite demanding. It is also important to note that
though military service in Israel is compulsory, there is a considerable degree of freedom of
choice as to where, and for how long, technical staff serve in various jobs and units. Also,
technical training and service in technical jobs in the army are often seen as an early phase of a
technical career.
The experiment took place during the orientation and assessment week. During this week
candidates take aptitude tests, respond to attitude surveys, and receive information about a
variety of air force jobs and occupations. At the end of the week they choose and rank their three
top preferences out of a list of 20 or more technical support, electronics, or maintenance
occupations. The experimental manipulation (a DMT workshop) was administered to randomly
selected groups towards the end of the week, after receiving occupational information and before
making occupational choices (on a special Preference Form).
The experimental manipulation. The DMT intervention adopts a compensatory
occupational choice approach (Osborn, 1990). It presents a systematic decision-making strategy.
9
In a sequence of five steps participants learn to: (1) Define the various alternatives; (2) Identify
attributes that are relevant to the decision; (3) Evaluate the importance of each attribute; (4)
Weigh the alternatives on each attribute, and (5) Arrive at an overall evaluation of each
alternative by calculating a weighted average of the attributes values, with weights indicating
importance (Feldman & Whitcomb, 2005; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Janis & Mann, 1977;
Sauermann, 2005). After learning the principles of the method, participants practiced its
principles in a car choice exercise. They were then advised to use the new method soon, when
choosing Air Force occupations. See Appendix 1 for the DMT instructions.
The DMT intervention was administered to randomly selected groups (of 20-25
participants at a time). It was led by air force personnel, and lasted about an hour and a half. The
control participants were engaged in a standard questionnaire filling activity for a similar
duration.
Sample
A full cohort of candidates for technical training participated in this study. The sample
consisted of 466 soldiers (18-20 years old). Of these, 247 were in the DMT condition and 219 in
the control (no DMT) condition. The majority (88.5%) was male, similar to the gender
proportion in the technical air force population. The experimental and control conditions were
similar in motivational and mental profiles, as routinely measured in the organization prior to
enlistment [t (464) =0.55 for the motivational profile, and t (464) =0.20, for the mental profile].
10
Measures
Perceived Organizational Support (POS) was measured by eight (7-point scale) items
from Eisenberger et al (1986) translated to Hebrew. A sample item is: "The army really cares
about the soldier's well being". Two items were omitted due to their irrelevance to the military
context. Alpha Cronbach was 0.76
Program Turnover. This binary variable indicates whether the participant dropped from
the technical training program or completed it. Note that these programs range from one to five
months. Reasons for dropping mostly relate to low motivation, lack of interest, or other kinds of
misfit.
Occupation Turnover. This binary variable indicates whether, six months after
completion of training, the participant dropped from his/her occupation, or stayed and completed
his service within this occupation. Note that this measure is statistically independent from
Program Turnover.
Results
The percentages of the dependent variables – the two kinds of turnover – and the means
(standard deviations) of Perceived Organizational Support are presented in Table I by
experimental condition.
------------------------------Take in Table I about here
------------------------------Supporting our prediction, the results show that Program Turnover in the DMT condition
was lower than in control, indicating a large effect of DMT on turnover – a decrease of about a
11
third. Despite the low power of χ2 in detecting differences in proportions that deviate from 50%,
the difference between Program Turnover in the two groups was significant, χ(1)2=4.2, p<0.05.
Six months after completion of training, Occupation Turnover among the programs’
graduates – a statistically independent measure for the effect of the experimental manipulation was considerably lower in the DMT group compared to control (1.9% versus 4.2%). However,
the difference did not reach statistical significance (perhaps because of the overall low levels of
Occupation Turnover2).
On the other hand, we did not find a significant difference in Perceived Organizational
Support between the DMT and the control group, t(443) =0.7.
Discussion
The present study provides further evidence to the usefulness of a simple intervention
that reduces early turnover. We found that a structured opportunity to reflect upon occupational
options via decision training results in stronger adherence among new entrants to their choice
and reduced turnover. This finding is now generalized to a different population in terms of prior
motivational profile (its lower end) and to different intervention timing, though further research
is certainly needed to generalize it to non-military settings and to other kinds of organizational
contexts and occupations.
From a theoretical standpoint, the results of this study are not consistent with the social
exchange rationale. The predicted elevation in Perceived Organizational Support among
participants who participated in the DMT was not supported. On the other hand, the results are
consistent with the self-determination rationale. The stronger behavioral perseverance of the
Note that if the ‘true’ effect of the experimental manipulation is reducing Occupation Turnover from 4.2% to
1.9%, the sample size needed to reject the null hypothesis with p<0.05 is about 7500.
2
12
DMT participants can be accounted by post decisional influence that justify prior choice. DMT
participants were presumably more conscious of their choice process. Aligning their attitude to
their awareness that their own choice had led them to this program, the DMT participants
persevered in the face of hardships. This interpretation is in line with the view of behavior as
shaping future attitudes and actions, and of people as engaging in retrospective processes of selfjustification (Brockner, 1992; Salancik, 1977; Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). In the context of
organizational entry, this view suggests that the manner in which a job choice decision is made
affects the decision maker’s subsequent behavioral commitment (see also O’Reilly & Caldwell,
1981).
Two points need to be made with regard to retrospective justification in these
circumstances. First, self-determination is especially relevant when expressed desires are
fulfilled. If one gets the assignment that one has reflectively chosen, one becomes more
committed, retrospectively, to this assignment (compared to a non-reflective, unaware chooser).
On the other hand, when assignment is inconsistent with choice, there is no reason to expect
retrospective binding or commitment. In fact, based on the escalation of commitment literature,
we might even expect reduced commitment among reflective compared to non-reflective
choosers, as a way to retrospectively justify what one did not get (Schoorman, 1988; Schoorman
& Holahan, 1996; Staw, 1981). For technical constraints that are common in field studies, we
could not analyze the turnover data separately according to the degree to which single
preferences had been met, but in future research such an analysis is needed in order to further
clarify the self-determination explanation.
Second, the supportive evidence that favors the self-determination over the social
exchange interpretation should lead to a careful re-definition of the construct that underlies the
13
DMT effect. The obtained higher perseverance in this study should be viewed as stronger
commitment to a course of action, or as commitment to professional training, rather than as
organizational commitment, which the social exchange argument had predicted.
Our evidence rules out an alternative (prospective) explanation, according to which the
lower turnover among the DMT participants was caused by more desirable assignments and
better person – job fit. First, the two groups did not differ in the degree of correspondence
between the participants’ top preferences (as marked on the Preference Form) and the actual job
that they eventually received (χ (1)2 =0.052). On average, 64% of participants in this sample were
assigned to one of their three top choices. Second, mean assignment satisfaction (a measure that
was obtained during the first days of training program, after the assessment week) was similar
for the two groups [t (462) =0.61]. However, our evidence at this point cannot rule out the
possibility that the choices of the DMT participants were more appropriate for them, so that
among those that did get what they wanted, there might have been a better person - job fit (e.g.,
Chen, Chang, & Yeh, 2004; Wolniak & Pacarella, 2005).
Returning to the social exchange explanation, the lack of support for this explanation in
the present study does not contradict the operation of social exchange processes in employment
contexts in general (Birdi et al 1997; Gaertner & Nollen, 1989; Nordhaug, 1989), and during
organizational entry in particular (Ganzach et al 2002; Meglino, DeNisi, & Ravlin, 1993;
Meglino, DeNisi, Youngblood, & Williams, 1988). The lack of significant elevation in Perceived
Organizational Support among the DMT participants in the present study might be an indication
for the robustness of POS among the entire pool of participants. A single organizational gesture
might not be enough to alter the perception of that organization. The perception of organizational
support in this study was probably shaped by the first few weeks of service, in which the DMT
14
was but one event. It is possible that a short DMT intervention might be more effective in
enhancing POS when it occurs prior to any substantial contact with the employer (as was the
case in the Ganzach et al study).
Finally, an important implication of this study is that encouraging the initial reflection
and deliberation of new entrants regarding their own direction in the organization, holds promise
of getting a more committed workforce. According to the career management literature,
increased awareness of self and of alternative occupations leads to more effective goal setting
(e.g., Greenhaus et al, 2000), which, at an early career phase, involves a well-thought decision to
enter a particular occupation. The DMT tool supports this process. The results of this and the
previous study suggest that its provision increases commitment to the chosen goal. It is therefore
recommended to consider DMT-type programs as an addition to early socialization practices.
15
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20
Table I
Turnover Data and Means ( Standard Deviations) of
Perceived Organizational Support
Condition
DMT
Control
(n=247)
(n=219)
Program Turnover
15.4%*
22.8%
Occupation Turnover
1.9%
4.1%
Perceived Organizational
Support
3.99
3.95
(0.96)
(0.91)
*p < 0.05
21
APPENDIX 1: THE DECISION MAKING TRAINING WORKSHOP
The text used by the air force person who conducted the DMT workshops: “The purpose
of this workshop is to help you make a decision concerning your preference for your technical
training and job during your service in the air force. We do not intend to influence what you
decide. We want to help you improve the process by which you make decisions. We will teach
you a decision-making procedure, which can help you in making decisions in general, and
decisions regarding your military service in particular.
The workshop consists of 2 stages: 1. General description of the balance-sheet method, 2.
applying this method to an example car choice. The method we present is a way to make
decisions in the best possible way. It is based on the construction of a balance sheet, in which a
person assesses the existence of personally important considerations in each of the alternatives
considered.”
Instructions for the the Balance Sheet Method: “Below is the sequence of recommended
steps. Make sure you work through them in the order specified:
1. Initial definition of all relevant considerations: Think about various considerations in
the present decision situation. Be sure to include as many relevant considerations as possible. Do
it with an open mind – the more relevant considerations elicited, the more effective the process.
2. Delete insignificant considerations: A long list might make the process cumbersome; at
this stage we recommend limiting the list to the considerations which are personally important to
you.
3. Assess the importance of each consideration: Now you have to determine the extent to
which each consideration is important to you. Rate each parameter on a 0 (not important at all) to
a 100 (extremely important) scale.
4. Define the alternatives under consideration, the alternatives among which you would
like to choose. Focus on alternatives that are real for you, rather than on alternatives that are
unfeasible.
5. Check the applicability of each consideration to each alternative. Examine the extent to
which each consideration exists within each alternative, and rate it on a 0 (does not apply at all)
to 5 (very much applies) scale.
6. Calculate the overall value of each alternative: Multiply the importance score of each
consideration by the score indicating the degree to which it applies to an alternative, and then
add up the product values for each alternative.
7. Choose the highest value alternative: If you have done the process right, the alternative
with the highest number is the one you prefer most. When two alternatives have equal sum, it
means that they are almost equivalent to you. In order to choose between them, you have to add
considerations and then repeat the above procedure.”
Instructions for the car choice trial exercise with the balance sheet method: “We will use
this method for a trial example. Consider the 3 used cars described below (description follows).
Their price is similar. Apply the balance sheet method to the task of choosing one out of these
three cars.”