The Theory of Critical Moments:
A Mind-Body Model of Sport
Performance and Mastery of
Pressure Situations
Roland A. Carlstedt, Ph.D., ABSP, LP
American Board of Sport Psychology,
Capella University: Harold Abel School of Psychology,
Integrative Psychological Services of New York City
Abstract
The Theory of Critical Moments proposes that state induced relative activation of the left-brain
hemisphere will facilitate pre-action preparation phases (sport) or strategic planning prior to
critical moments of competition or important situations and decisions. The likelihood of this
occurrence is predicted to increase as a function of left-brain hemisphere localized repressive
coping, a behavior associated neurophysiologically with the ability to functionally inhibit the
interhemispheric transfer of negative affect from the right to the left hemisphere. Conversely,
negative affect or neuroticism, a right brain hemisphere based trait, in the absence of high
repressive coping, and in the presence of high absorption or hypnotic susceptibility is predicted
to disrupt performance during critical moments by allowing the interhemispheric transfer of
negative affect from the right to the left hemisphere. In such a scenario negative intrusive
thoughts access and remain in the ruminative left-brain hemisphere, thereby disrupting the
seamless left-to-right shift that has been observed in numerous EEG studies of athletes, indicative
of pre-action strategic planning prior to focusing on visuoperceptual demands of a sport-specific
action.
This hypothesis offers a plausible explanation for the dynamics underlying loss of attention and
excessive physiological reactivity due to intrusive cognitions, or “thinking, instead of doing,” a
phenomenon that is expected to be associated with relative of hypoactivation of the
left-brain hemisphere. Athletes and persons possessing the ideal constellation of high repressive
coping, low neuroticism and high or low hypnotic susceptibility or absorption are predicted to be
less vulnerable to negative intrusive thoughts, whereas athletes and persons who are low in
repressive coping, high in neuroticism and high in hypnotic susceptibility/absorption are
predicted to be most vulnerable to disruptive cognitions, especially during critical moments of
competition or situations. Emerging evidence has implicated Repressive Coping, Hypnotic
Susceptibility/Absorption and Neuroticism as Primary Higher Order Factors (PHO) in
mediating attention, physiological reactivity and cognitive processing, key components of peak
performance and so-called Zone or Flow states as well as mastery and failure. In addition,
specific parameters of heart rate variability (heart rate deceleration) have been isolated as a
potential physiological marker of Zone or Flow states.
The following model has explained up to 44% in the performance equation on the basis of the
above isolated psychological variables alone, an unprecedented finding that attests to the potency
of these measures in predicting performance outcome and the methodological necessity of
identifying micro-level criterion or outcome measures that are sensitive to psychological
influences, something previous research has failed to do.
Hypothesized
neuropsychophysiological
concomitants and mind-body
model of mastery and failure in
sport and life (Theory of Critical
Moments)
Predictor Variables
*Repressive Coping: a left-brain based behavior associated with ability to suppress or ignore
negative life events, intrusive thoughts, heightened self-esteem and confidence and threshold for
pain and neurophysiologically with functional disconnection of the left from the right
hemisphere.
*Neuroticism: a right-brain localized personality trait associated with a negative catastrophizing
cognitive style when recalling past events and looking to the future and hyperreactive autonomic
responses even at baseline in the absence of overt stressors.
*Hypnotic Susceptibility/Absorption: Hypnotic Susceptibility (HS)/Absorption is a bilaterally
based psychophysiological trait that can manifest itself independent of hypnosis or hypnotic
induction. It is a pervasive and omnipresent mode of information processing marked by an
intense ability to focus on internal or external stimuli as well as vulnerability to surplus pattern
recognition. Absorption is a lower-order factor of hypnotic susceptibility and the hypnotic
experience.
*Relative Brain-Hemispheric Activation or Predominance as measured using a line-bisecting test.
Criterion Variables (Performance Outcome)
According to level of criticality
5. Basketball: 3 seasons of Player free-throw shooting % (most critical)
4. Baseball/Softball: 3 seasons of Player batting average
3. Basketball: 3 seasons of Player field-goal shooting %
2. Soccer: 2 seasons of Player field-goal shooting %
1. Tennis: Player Won-Loss record 3 seasons
1. Golf: Player Average Score per Round 3 seasons (least critical)1
1
Complete rationale for the selection of the above criterion measures can be found in: Carlstedt RA (2004). Critical moments
during competition: A mind-body model of sport performance when it counts the most. NY: Psychology Press.
Hypotheses
I.
Singular, interactions and/or constellations of isolated PHO factors will explain
more of less of the variance in the performance equation as a function of level of
criticality of a competitive moment or situation.
II. Highly-skilled and “more successful” athletes and persons will exhibit
greater relative left-brain hemispheric predominance than less skilled athletes and
persons at baseline and especially during critical moments.
III. Greater amounts and magnitude heart rate deceleration trends will occur during
successful compared to unsuccessful performance.
IV. Athletes and persons who are high or low in hypnotic susceptibility/absorption, low
in neuroticism and high in repressive coping will master critical moments better
than persons possessing any other constellation of the these measures.
Method
Hypothesis 1 and 2; Participants:
699 NCAA division 1, 2 and 3 level starting athletes from the sports of baseball, softball,
basketball, soccer, tennis and golf; additional subsets of 250 and 40 athletes
Instruments: Marlowe Crowne Scale, Tellegen Absorption Scale, Eysenck Personality
Inventory, Edinburgh Handedness Inventory, Line-Bisecting Test
Hypothesis 3: Single case study using ambulatory HRV monitoring and analysis software
Statistical Procedures: Multiple Regression, Linear Correlation, T-Test
Hypothesis 4: Research hypothesis currently being tested
Results
VARIANCE EXLAINED AS FUNCTION OF LEVEL OF CRITICALITY
CO
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PHO FACTORS AND PERFORMANCE
Key: FT=Free throw%; BA=Batting Avg.; RC=repressive coping; N=neuroticism;
A=absorption; LB=line-bisecting (hemispheric activation); bb=baseball; sb=softball
Heart Rate Variability/Deceleration Trends
Relative Brain Hemispheric Predominance or Activation
Carlstedt, R.A. (2004). Line-bisecting performance in highly skilled athletes: Does preponderance of rightward error reflect unique cortical
organization and functioning. Brain and Cognition, 54, 52-57.
Conclusions
1) Repressive Coping, Absorption
and/or Neuroticism explained up to 44% of the
variance in the performance equation increasing
linearly as a function of critical moments of
competition consistent with the Theory of Critical
Moments.
2.) Relationships between the above measures and
performance outcome criterion variables were
consistent with predictions from the Theory of
Critical Moments.
3.) Relative brain hemispheric activation as
determined by a line-bisecting test indicated that
highly-skilled athletes were overwhelmingly lefthemipshere predominant at baseline and that
increasing magnitude of rightward error (left-
hemispheric activation) was associated with better
performance.
4.) Directional relationships between singular,
constellations and/or interactions of Repressive
Coping, Absorption and Neuroticism and
performance outcome were consistent with the
Theory of Critical Moments Mind-Body Model
(neuropsychophysiological dynamics during critical
moments).
5.) Greater number and magnitude of heart rate
deceleration trends marked a tennis match that was
won compared to a match that was lost (same
player’s heart activity) consistent with the Theory
of Critical Moments Mind-Body Model.
6.) Repressive Coping, Hypnotic Susceptibility and
Neuroticism are emerging as primary higher order
variables in mediating key components of peak
performance including attention, physiological
reactivity and cognitive processes.
7). The inability of previous research to explain
much of the variance in the performance equation
that can be attributed to psychological traits and
specific behaviors can be linked to the failure to
study such variables in the context of potent
objective performance outcome measures that are
sensitive to psychological influences. This is most
likely to occur during critical moments during
competition at the micro-level of performance
within a longitudinal and repeated measures
design.
About the Author
Roland A. Carlstedt, Ph.D. is a Licensed Clinical Psychologist and Clinical Director of Integrative
Psychological Services of New York City. He specializes in Behavioral Medicine, Health and Sport Psychology
and Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback. A former professional tennis player and coach, Roland is also
the Chairman of the American Board of Sport Psychology and Adjunct Faculty at Capella University: Harold
Abel School of Psychology. He is also Director of Sport Psychology Research: Brain and Heart Processes for
BioCom Technologies and a Research Consultant to the Brain Resource Company and Brainquiry. His research
has received widespread recognition and acclaim including:
*2001 Dissertation Award of American Psychological Association Division 47;*Nomination for the2002
Donald Lindsley Dissertation Award of the Society for Neuroscience;*Nomination for the University of
Louisville 2001 Grawemeyer Award for Best New Ideas in Psychology;*Dissertation with Distinction honor
from Saybrook Graduate School.
Peer-reviewed publications emanating from his dissertation research include: Critical moments during
competition: A mind-body model of sport performance when it counts the most (2004 Psychology Press) and
articles in Brain and Cognition and Biofeedback.
CONTACT: DrRCarlstedt@aol.com; www.americanboardofsportpsychology.org; 917-680-3994