SUB-FOSSIL BIRD BONES OF
CHERSONESOS
TAYKOVA SVETLANA
Schmalhausen Institute of Zoology, Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, 15 B. Khmelnitsky St., 01601 Kiev,
Ukraine; e-mail: tajkova@izan.kiev.ua
This paper is a review of the bird bone remnants discovered during the excavations of the
Chersonesos III B.C. - XIII A.D. during 2004-2006. 645 bone fragments of total 859 were
identified to species. 214 bone fragments were broken in different directions, but then they were
glued together, and (although still too damaged for proper identification to species) identified to
skeletal bones. The identified bone fragments collected from the same layer were grouped by the
number of source specimens. As one can see from the tables the majority of studied bone
fragments are represented by the domestic fowl (Gallus gallus f. domesticus), whereas all other
species except the great bustard (Otis tarda) and mallard, (Anas platyrhynchos) are represented
just by isolated finds.
In total, 26 species of birds were identified: Gallus gallus f. domesticus - 517 remnants (152
specimens), Otis tarda - 39 remnants (25 specimens), Anas platyrhynchos - 21 remnants (13
specimens), Corvus cornix - 8 remnants (8 specimens), Phalacrocorax carbo - 8 remnants (6
specimens), Coturnix coturnix - 7 remnants (5 specimens), Columba livia - 5 remnants (5
specimens), Puffinus puffinus - 5 remnants (4 specimens), Anas strepera - 4 remnants (3
specimens), Columba palumbus - 4 remnants (3 specimens), Gavia arctica - 3 remnants (3
specimens), Podiceps nigricollis - 2 remnants (2 specimens), Aquila chrysaetos - 2 remains (2
specimens), Aythya ferina - 2 remains (2 specimens), Anas clypeata - 1 remain (1 specimen),
Clangula hyemalis - 1 remain (1 specimen), Corvus corax - 1 remain (1 specimen), Corvus
monedula - 1 remain (1 specimen), Garrulus glandarius - 1 remain (1 specimen), Melanitta
nigra - 1 remain (1 specimen), Netta rufina - 1 remain (1 specimen), Podiceps cristatus - 1
remain (1 specimens), Rufibrenta ruficollis - 1 remain (1 specimen), Turdus merula - 1 remain (1
specimen) and two remains were identified to genus only: Anas sp. - 1 remain (1 specimen) and
Calidris sp. - 1 remain (1 specimen). Almost all of the 25 wild bird species reported here either
nest or occur while migrating or overwintering on the territory of the Crimean peninsula, in
vicinities of the Sebastopol Bay.
Such species as Common Scoter (Melanitta nigra) are rare straying species.
The domestic fowls were likely bred rather for egg production (smaller-sized breeds) or meet
production (larger-sized breeds) in ancient Chersoneses.
Introduction
Birds are accompanied with people during all of the history of mankind. They were not
just used for food, but they were also immolated, they were worshipped, ancient dwellings were
decorated with their images, people envied their ability to fly and tried to imitate them. Various
nations, including the inhabitants of the Black Sea region, considered birds to be the messengers
between the Earth and Heaven, the messengers and spokesmen of will of the gods, prophets and
carriers of souls, since the most ancient times. There was a peculiar “science” of guessing
through the birds. Not only just the appearance, but also the flight, behavior or voice of certain
species, were interpreted in certain way.
Recent fauna of Crimea includes about 300 species of birds belonging to 19 genera. The
remnants of in excavations of Crimea were reviewed by Voinstvenski (1967). He identified 54
species from the Alimov shed in the Bakhchsarai region (late Stone Age and later), 20 species
from the excavations in the Okunevka-village located at the Tarkhankut peninsula (I - III cent.
A.D.), 5 species from the excavations in vicinities of the Tchaika village of the Eupatoria region
(III cent. A.D.). Also, 7 species were identified from total 12 remnants were identified in the
cultural-historical complex Chersonesos (I cent. B.C. - II-III cent. A.D.). The current excavations
in Chersonesos allowed to increase considerably a species check-list of the local sub-fossil
ornitifauna. This paper is devoted to the analysis of osteological materials of bird remnants
collected in 2004-2006 years during excavations in Chersonesos and age-dated as III cent. B.C. XIII cent. A.C.
Materials and methods
893 bone remains dated as III century B.C. – XIII century A.D. were found during the
excavations. Identification of the bone remnants was done with the use of the comparative
osteological bird collection of the Zoological Museum of the National Museum of Natural
History of National Academy of Science of Ukraine (Kiev). Terminology follows that of Baumel
et al. (1993). Papers of Voinstvenski (1967), Kostin (1983), Lysenko (1991), Kistyakivski
(1957), Smogorzhevski (1979) were used during writing the species essays.
Results
645 bone fragments of total 859 were identified to species. 214 bone fragments were
broken in different directions, but then they were glued together, and (although still too damaged
for proper identification to species) identified to skeletal bones. These were represented by: the
pelvis (29), costae (12), carina sterni (9), humerus (2), femur, neurocranium, radius, sternum,
tibiotarsus (all represented by 1). 155 bird bone diaphyses were not identifiable nether to species
nor to skeletal parts. Bird bone remains, the species affiliation was determined, belong to 26
species (Table 1, 2). Two remains were identified to genus.
The identified bone fragments collected from the same layer were grouped by the number
of source specimens (Tables 2). As one can see from the tables the majority of studied bone
fragments are represented by the domestic fowl (Gallus gallus f. domesticus), whereas all other
species except the great bustard (Otis tarda) and mallard, (Anas platyrhynchos) are represented
just by isolated finds.
In total, 26 species of birds were identified: Gallus gallus f. domesticus - 517 remnants (152
specimens), Otis tarda - 39 remnants (25 specimens), Anas platyrhynchos - 21 remnants (13
specimens), Corvus cornix - 8 remnants (8 specimens), Phalacrocorax carbo - 8 remnants (6
specimens), Coturnix coturnix - 7 remnants (5 specimens), Columba livia - 5 remnants (5
specimens), Puffinus puffinus - 5 remnants (4 specimens), Anas strepera - 4 remnants (3
specimens), Columba palumbus - 4 remnants (3 specimens), Gavia arctica - 3 remnants (3
specimens), Podiceps nigricollis - 2 remnants (2 specimens), Aquila chrysaetos - 2 remains (2
specimens), Aythya ferina - 2 remains (2 specimens), Anas clypeata - 1 remain (1 specimen),
Clangula hyemalis - 1 remain (1 specimen), Corvus corax - 1 remain (1 specimen), Corvus
monedula - 1 remain (1 specimen), Garrulus glandarius - 1 remain (1 specimen), Melanitta
nigra - 1 remain (1 specimen), Netta rufina - 1 remain (1 specimen), Podiceps cristatus - 1
remain (1 specimens), Rufibrenta ruficollis - 1 remain (1 specimen), Turdus merula - 1 remain (1
specimen) and two remains were identified to genus only: Anas sp. - 1 remain (1 specimen) and
Calidris sp. - 1 remain (1 specimen).
Discussion
I propose to group the discovered species into domestic (the domestic fowl) and the game
birds and occasional findings. The last group is represented by the birds, which might be hunted
for food but more probably were killed by accident or some other reasons (e.g. the hooded crow
(Corvus cornix), the raven (Corvus corax), the jackdaw (Corvus monedula), the Jay (Garrulus
glandarius) and manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus).
Domestic fowl dominates in all date of formation of deposit, the highest amount of bone
remains belongs to the Medieval Age (Table 3). There is a lot of the juveniles, which are difficult
to identify. The fowls from the Roman Age and early Byzantian Age are generally adult and
belong to a small-sized, probably, egg-laying breed, though there were also male juveniles of the
greater size (possibly capons). It allows us to propose, that the domestic fowls in this time were
used in ancient Chersonesos for obtaining eggs. The domestic fowl is the only bird that was
certainly domestic. The remains included bones from males, females and immature birds. Some
of the bones contained medullary deposits and would have been females culled at some point
during the breeding season rather than in the winter. Most of the tarsometatarsus with spurs
would have been from male birds.
Almost all of the 25 wild bird species reported here either nest or occur while migrating or
overwintering on the territory of the Crimean peninsula, in vicinities of the Sebastopol Bay
(Kostin, 1983; Logachev, Mordvinov, 1992; Hagemeijer, Blair, 1997).
Among the wild birds, predominate waterfowls (Table 2,3), which occur in high number in
the autumnal – autumn-winter seasons during migrations and often fall into fisher nets. The most
bone remnants belong to the Medieval Age. The great bustard is of special interest. The hunting
for this species in the Black Sea region was rather productive at all times, as follows by findings
of numerous remnants of this species in excavations of the south of Ukraine [Voinstvenski,
1967]. Most common way of hunting has been the one used for hundred years back in steppe
regions. Birds were mass killed in winter, on a glaze ice, when they became completely helpless.
The great bustards have no coccygeal gland (which is present in waterfowls) and they can not
lubrify their feathers. In the autumn, in a rainy weather, birds become wet, and at first frosts after
a rain their feathers regelate. Then bustards lose their capacity to fly and become a victim of a
man.
Crows are represented by 4 species (Table 2, 3). Most likely they were not used for food,
since the bones are not damaged; probably they were killed or brought when already died. The
found remnants of pigeons might belong to both, domestic and wild forms, but more precise
identifications are not possible.
Systematic part
Poultry
Squad Galliformes
The set Phasianidae
Gallus gallus f. domesticus - Domestic fowl
The remnants of sub-fossil fowls are constantly present in excavations in Ukraine, since III
millenium B.C. [Voinstvenski, 1967]. Ancient India is considered one of the most probable
places of the fowl’s domestication (Gallus gallus f. domesticus). Apparently, it has happened in
late Stone Age. The images of this bird on the household pieces bear evidence that in that time in
Indian people knew fowls as poultries. The fowls got to the Ancient Greece from Persia in VI-V
century B.C., and already in V century B.C. they were used by Greeks as sacrifices.
517 remains representing 152 specimens of the domestic fowl were found at excavations of
Chersonesos. The bones of fowls occur nearly in all layers, except for 348, 355, 386, 411, 437,
805, 821, 886, 908 (Table 3, 4). The bone remains are represented by all parts of skeleton. A
ratio of the lower and lower and upper finiteness 177: 160. There are small- and large-sized
specimens.
Wild birds
The wild birds were used by a man as objects of hunting in all times. For example, the
ancient Greeks hunted for cleats, pigeons, daws, gulls. The great bustards and waterfowls were
bagged during migrations and winterings in the Black Sea region long since. The eggs of gulls
and gannets were collected on colonies.
Order Gaviiformes
Family Gaviidae
Gavia arctica (Linnaeus, 1758) - black-throated diver
This species is regularly overwintering and occurring at stopovers. Most black-throated divers
keep along the sea coasts; occasionally they reach mountain rivers in winter. This bird was
hunted for its feather, also known as the “bird fur” .
3 remains belonging to 3 specimens of black-throated diver were found at excavations of
Chersonesos. The bones of Gavia arctica were found in the layers 369, 569, 927 dated as XIII
century A.D. (Table 3, 4).
Order Podicipediformes
Family Podicipitidae
Podiceps cristatus (Linnaeus, 1758) - great crested grebe
Now great crested grebe is nesting, transient-time and wintering by an auk of Crimea. Winters
on a Southern coast, in a remaining season meets on miscellaneous pools down to mining речек.
As well as гагар, before these auks have used for obtaining « of the bird's fur ».
1 remain belonging to 1 specimen of great crested grebe were found at excavations of
Chersonesos. The bones of Podiceps cristatus were found in the layer 456 dated as XIII century
A.D. (Table 3, 4).
Podiceps nigricollis Brehm CL, 1831 - black-necked grebe
This species occurs regularly during the spring and fall stopovers; limited number of the blacknecked grebes overwinter on sea shores of Black and Azov seas.
2 remains belonging to 2 specimens of black-necked grebe were found at excavations of
Chersonesos. The bones of were Podiceps nigricollis found in the layers 636, 927 dated as XXI, XIII century A.D. (Table 3, 4).
ORDER PROCELLARIIFORMES
Family Procellariidae
Puffinus puffinus (Brunnich, 1764) - manx shearwater
This species occurs near the Crimean seacoast all the year round. The highest number of the bird
population is inherent to the southern bank from Sebastopol to Kerch. It feeds on gregarious fish
species, keeps distant from shores, not approaching the bank closer than to 200 meters. The
Manx shearwater falls occasionally into fishing nets.
5 remains belonging to 4 specimens of manx shearwater were found at excavations of
Chersonesos. The bones of Puffinus puffinus were found in the layers 649, 798, 907 dated as
XII - XIII century A.D. (Table 3, 4). Can fall in рыболовецкие of a network .
ORDER PELECANIFORMES
Family Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus, 1758) - cormorant
Common species. Populations of this species occur near the Crimean seacoast all the year round.
The locations of the mass winterings are between the Fiolent and Chersonesos capes. Though the
meat баклана has off-flavour at the expense of hypodermic Adeps, he could serve widespread
hunting object at the expense of the mass nature and ease of a mining on colonys.
8 remains belonging to 6 specimens of manx shearwater were found at excavations of
Chersonesos. The bones of Puffinus puffinus were found in the layers 411, 509, 785, 798, 840,
850, 879 dated as XI - XIV century A.D. (Table 3, 4).
Phalacrocorax aristotelis (Linnaeus, 1761) - shag
The shag is non-migratory and not numerous species, migrating along seashores of the Crimean
Peninsula. It nests on coastal rocks, feeds along the sea coasts.
5 remains belonging to 4 specimens of shag were found at excavations of Chersonesos. The
bones of Phalacrocorax aristotelis were found in the layers 359, 369, 378, 388 dated as IX XIII century A.D. (Table 3, 4).
ORDER ANSERIFORMES
Family Anatidae
Rufibrenta ruficollis (Pallas, 1769) - red-breasted goose
Transient-time auk of Crimea. Meets grups and shoals up to 60-100 copies. Meet on the open
shallow waters, autumn on озими.
1 remain belonging to 1 specimen of red-breasted goose were found at excavations of
Chersonesos. The bones of Rufibrenta ruficollis were found in the layers 596 dated as XII - XIII
century A.D. (Table 3, 4).
Anas clypeata Linnaeus, 1758 - shoveler
This is migratory and wintering species of the Crimea. It overwinters regularly on the south bank
of Crimea, but the number of overwintering birds is not significant.
1 remain belonging to 1 specimen of shoveler were found at excavations of Chersonesos. The
bones of Anas clypeata were found in the layers 754 dated as IX – XI century A.D. (Table 3, 4).
Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus, 1758 - mallard
This species is common and nesting, occurs on flyaways and overwinters in the Crimea. It occurs
only during the winterings on various water reservoirs of the south bank of Crimea. They and
presently are the main (basic) object of sporting hunting on feathered the game animal.
21 remains belonging to 1 specimens of mallard were found at excavations of Chersonesos. The
bones of Anas platyrhynchos were found in the 538, 668, 759, 792, 837, 855, 879, 903, 906, 907,
908, 914, 921 layers dated as IX – XI century A.D., XII-XIII century A.D. (Table 3, 4).
Anas strepera Linnaeus, 1758 – gadwall
This species is rare, occurs just sporadically in the Crimea. The gadwall occurs on freshwater
and salty water reservoirs on the south bank of Crimea and Crimean mountains during its spring
flyaway. 4 remains belonging to 3 specimens of gadwall were found at excavations of
Chersonesos. The bones of Anas strepera were found in the 448, 569, 840 layers dated as XIIXIII century A.D. (Table 3, 4).
Netta rufina (Pallas, 1773) - red-crested pochard
Under the literary data till 1857 customary wintering a kind of Southern beach of Crimea.
1 remain belonging to 1 specimen of red-crested pochard were found at excavations of
Chersonesos. The bones of Netta rufina were found in the 907 layers (Table 3, 4).
Aythya ferina (Linnaeus, 1758) - pochard
In a small amount, but is regular winters for ice-free coast of Southern beach of Crimea.
2 remains belonging to 2 specimens of pochard were found at excavations of Chersonesos. The
bones of Aythya ferina were found in the 386 and 461 0 layers dated as X-XIII century A.D.
(Table 3, 4).
Clangula hyemalis Linnaeus, 1758 - long-tailed duck
This bird is generally occurs far northern, on moorland pools and lakes of Tundra. Very rare in
Crimea.
1 remain belonging to 1 specimen of long-tailed duck were found at excavations of Chersonesos.
The bones of Clangula hyemalis were found in the 759 layers (Table 3, 4).
Melanitta nigra (Linnaeus, 1758) - common scoter
This is infrequent stray species in the peninsula. It is nesting in a tundra zone of Eurasia. It is
bagged alongside with other diving ducks by cleats.
1 remain belonging to 1 specimen of common scoter were found at excavations of Chersonesos.
The bones of Melanitta nigra were found in the 907 layers (Table 3, 4).
Bucephala clangula (Linnaeus, 1758) -goldeneye
This bird overwinters in Crimea and occurs on freshwater reservoirs in mountain Crimea, and
also in deep and shallow places in open sea.
3 remains belonging to 2 specimens of goldeneye were found at excavations of Chersonesos. The
bones of Bucephala clangula were found in the 603, 756 layers dated as XIII century A.D. and
it is possible Early Byzantine (Table 3, 4).
ORDER FALCONIFORMES
Family Accipitridae
Aquila chrysaetos Linnaeus, 1758 - golden eagle
Migratory and overwintering bird in Crimea.
2 remains belonging to 2 specimens of golden eagle were found at excavations of Chersonesos.
The bones of Aquila chrysaetos were found in the 759, 805 layers dated as XII-XIII century
A..D. (Table 3, 4).
Probably one of them was capture an auk, but golden eagle not a representative hunting auk for
the peoples of Crimea. With it hunt in more to Central Asia, and probably auk was killed during
an offence on poultry.
ORDER CHARADRIIFORMES
Family Charadriidae
Calidris sp. - knots and surfbirds
Arctic-breeding, strongly migratory wading birds. These birds form huge mixed flocks on coasts
and estuaries in winter.
1 remain belonging to 1 specimen of knots and surfbirds
were found at excavations of
Chersonesos. The bones of Calidris sp. were found in the 927 layers (Table 3, 4).
ORDER GALLIFORMES
Family Phasianidae
Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus, 1758) - quail
This is a nesting species, which occurs in Crimea on its flyaways. Low number of specimens of
this bird occasionally overwinters in Crimea. This is a game bird, which inhabits steppe habitats
and open landscapes of foothills.
7 remains belonging to 5 specimens of quail were found at excavations of Chersonesos. The
bones of Coturnix coturnix
were found in the 461, 636, 756, 821, 907, 908 layers dated as X-XI century A.D. and it is
possible late Early Byzantine (Table 3, 4).
ORDER GRUIFORMES
Family Otididae
Otis tarda Linnaeus, 1758 - great bustard
This bird nests and occurs on flyaways in Crimea. Local migrations of the great bustards on the
territory of Crimean Peninsula, and increase of their number due to arrivals from north or
departures to south depend significantly on weather in winter and other meteorological
circumstances. Most great bustards must stop on the south bank of Crimea, forming mass
aggregations.
39 remains belonging to 25 specimens of great bustard were found at excavations of
Chersonesos. The bones of Otis tarda were found in the 338,348, 349, 351, 355, 358, 369, 392,
437, 456, 509, 569, 596, 660, 752, 753, 757, 759, 778, 798, 804, 809, 823, 827, 850, 868, 879,
883 layers dated as II A.D., III B.C.,IX-XIII century A.D. and it is possible late Early Byzantine
(Table 3, 4).
ORDER COLUMBIFORMES
Family Columbidae
Columba palumbus Linnaeus, 1758 - woodpigeon
It is a nesting species in Mountain Crimea, and also migratory and over wintering bird in entire
Crimea. It is also a game bird.
4 remains belonging to 3 specimens of woodpigeon were found at excavations of Chersonesos.
The bones of Columba palumbus were found in the 411, 569, 886 layers dated as XII-XIV
century A.D (Table 3, 4).
Columba livia Gmelin, 1789 - rockdove
Non-migratory bird. Nests on maritime rocks of South Coast of Crimea.
5 remains belonging to 5 specimens of rockdove were found at excavations of Chersonesos. The
bones of Columba livia were found in the 538, 569, 800, 850, 879 layers dated as V-VI, XIII
century A.D. (Table 3, 4).
ORDER PASSERIFORMES
Family Corvidae
Garrulus glandarius (Linnaeus, 1758) - jay
This is non-migratory bird, which nests and migrates in mountain-forest parts of Crimea. In cold
seasons, generally since October, it appears in orchards of south bank of Crimea.
1 remain belonging to 1 specimen of jay were found at excavations of Chersonesos. The bones of
Garrulus glandarius were found in the 752 layers dated as XII-XIII century A.D. (Table 3, 4).
Corvus monedula Linnaeus, 1758 - jackdaw
This is non-migratory species, which occurs in winter and early spring in Crimea.
1 remain belonging to 1 specimen of jackdaw were found at excavations of Chersonesos. The
bones of Corvus monedula were found in the 837 layers dated as IX-XI century A.D. (Table 3,
4).
Corvus cornix Linnaeus, 1758 - hooded crow
This bird is non- or partly migratory. It inhabits vicinities of cities, towns and villages, up to the
dense forest belt. This species explores various food resources of plant and animal origin,
including human food wastes.
8 remains belonging to 8 specimens of hooded crow were found at excavations of Chersonesos.
The bones of Corvus cornix were found in the 348, 461, 649, 752, 759, 765, 805, 879 layers
dated as VI, IX-XI, XII-XIII century A.D. (Table 3, 4).
Corvus corax Linnaeus, 1758 - common raven
Non-migratory bird. It is common in mountain-forest part of Crimea, where feeds mainly on
carrion and wastes, but can also consume arthropods, amphibians, small mammals, birds and
reptiles.
1 remain belonging to 1 specimen of common raven were found at excavations of Chersonesos.
The bones of Corvus corax were found in the 649 layers dated as IX-XI century A.D. (Table 3,
4).
Family Muscicapidae
Turdus merula Linnaeus 1758 - blackbird
There are two subspecies in the Crimea: T. m. merula L. - migratory and ovewintering and T. m.
aterrimus Madar. - nesting and, probably, non-migratory. It inhabits most of Mountain Crimea
and nests in foothill orchards, in steppe and river valleys.
1 remain belonging to 1 specimen of blackbird were found at excavations of Chersonesos. The
bones of Turdus merula were found in the 569 layers dated as XIII century A.D. (Table 3, 4).
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