Individual Differences in Second language Learning
Rod Ellis
University of Auckland
Lecture given at National Chengchi University
September 2001
A. Individual differences and L2 acquisition
Individual differences can be hypothesised to influence different aspects of L2 acquisition:
1. The process of L2 acquisition (i.e. differences in the way in which learners construct their
interlanguages).
2. Rate of acquisition
3. Ultimate level of achievement
4. L2 performance
B. Types of Individual Learner Differences
1. Beliefs
Learners possess beliefs about language, language learners, language use, and language
learning that influence the way they set about learning an L2. These beliefs are generally
investigated by means of Likert scale questionnaires that require learners to respond to
statements like:
I study English because it is useful to communicate with English speaking people.
Learning English is mostly a matter of learning grammar rules.
Girls are better than boys at learning English.
Other methods (e.g. learner diaries and interviews) have also been used to examine beliefs.
The study of learner beliefs has a number of possible applications:
 developing self-awareness in learners (learner autonomy)
 indentifying beliefs that relate to successful language learning
 countering beliefs that have a negative impact on language learning.
However, to date, there has been little success in indentifying which beliefs relate to
successful and unsuccessful learning.
2. Affective States
The affective variable that has attracted most attention is anxiety. This has been investigated
by means of questionnaires and learner diaries.
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Three types of anxiety:
 Trait anxiety
 State anxiety
 Situational anxiety
Sources of language learning anxiety are:
 communication apprehension
 tests
 fear of negative evaluation
Research has shown very mixed relationships between anxiety and proficiency.
Anxiety can be both debilitating and facilitating.
3.
Learner factors
A number of general factors have been found to influence L2 learning. These can divided
into two principal groups:
A. Immutable factors, e.g.
1. Age
2. Language aptitude
B. Mutable factors, e.g.
1. Learning style
2. Personality
3. Personality
The factors that have been most researched are:
C. Language Aptitude
Modern Language Aptitude Test (Carroll and Sapon 1959) and Pimsleur Language Aptitude
Battery (Pimsleur 1966) used to measure language aptitude. These are based on a four-factor
model of language aptitude:
 phonemic coding ability (i.e. ability to code foreign sounds in a way they can be
remembered later)
 grammatical sensitivity (i.e. ability to recognize grammatical functions of words in
sentences)
 inductive language learning ability (i.e. ability to identify patterns of correspondence and
relationships involving form and meaning).
 Rote learning ability (i.e. ability to form and remember associations beteen stimuli, as in
vocabulary learning).
Research has shown a fairly strong relationship between MLAT/PLAB scores and measures
of language proficiency (i.e. correlations of between .4 and .6).
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Language aptitude appears to be related to both measures of basic interpersonal
communication skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP).
D. Motivation
In general, motivation has been examined by means of self-report questionnaires (e.g.
Gardner 1985).
Different types of motivation have been identified in language learning research:
 Integrative motivation (i.e. ‘i.e. motivation informed by an orientation towards the target
language people and culture)
 Instrumental motivation (i.e. a motivation that derives towards a functional orientation to
learning the language)
 Resultative motivation (i.e. a motivation that derives from success in learning an L2)
 Intrinsic interest (i.e. motivation that results that the pleasure gained by performing
language learning tasks)
Research indicates that both integrative and instrumental motivation can promote L2
learning. Also, success in learning results in increased motivation. Current interest in
motivation has switched to studying how teachers can develop intrinsic motivation in learners
(e.g. Dornyei’s research).
Reading: R. Oxford and J. Shearin 1994. Language learning motivation: expanding the
theoretical framework. Modern Language Journal 78: 12-28.
E. Learning Experience
Learners also vary in their learning experience (e.g. naturalistic vs. classroom learning
experiences). These are likely to influence how they orientate towards the task of learning an
L2. Two broad orientations can be identified:
1. Experiential (functionally oriented)
2. studial (norm-oriented)
The potential exists for changing learners’ orientation through learner training or through new
learning experiences.
F. Learning strategies
Learning strategies are general approaches, specific actions or techniques used to learn an L2.
They can be both behavioural and mental. They are problem-oriented and learners are
conscious of them
Learning strategies have been researched primarily by means of self-report questionnaires
(e.g. Oxford’s ‘Strategy Inventory for Language Learning’ – SILL). Some studies have used
think-aloud tasks.
Learner’s choice of learning strategies is seen as influenced by both individual learner
differences (as above) and situational/social factors.
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Three broad types of strategies have been identified:
1. Metacognitive (e.g. self-evaluation: checking the outcomes of one’s own language
learning against an internal measure of completeness and accuracy)
2. Cognitive (e.g. deduction: consciously applying rules to produce or understand the second
language)
3. Social/affective (e.g. cooperation: working with one or more peers to obtain feedback,
pool information, or model a language activity)
Studies of the ‘good language learner’ have attempted to identify the strategies that
successful learners use. Results show that they use strategies involving a) attention to form,
b) attention to meaning, c) learner autonomy, d) awareness of the learning process.
Research has also shown that learners can be successfully taught to use effective strategies.
G. Learning outcomes
The relationship between individual learner differences and L2 learning is an interactive and
dynamic one, each influencing the other.
Further reading:
Arnold, J. (ed.). 1999. Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cohen, A. 1998. Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. London: Longman.
Dornyei, Z. and Csizer, K. 1998. Ten commandments for motivating language teachers.
Language Teaching Research 2: 203-229.
Oxford, R. Language Learning Strategies Around the World: Crosscultural Perspectives.
Manoa: University of Hawaii Press.
Skehan, P. 1989. Individual Learner Differences. London: Arnold.
Wenden, A. and Rubin, J. (eds). 1987. Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall International.
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