CHAPTER2
THEORETICAL REVIEW
In this chapter, the writer would like to discuss the theories used to support in
this thesis writing. There are two general theories that to be discussed, namely, theory of
translation and theory of grammar.
Theory
translation,
of
translation discusses
translation
strategies, the
about
translation
translator,
and
equivalence, kinds
lexical
and
of
grammatical
equivalence.
While, theory of grammar would be divided specifically into theory of English
grammar and theory oflndonesian grammar, relative clause, and word and phrase.
2.1 Theory of Translation
There are four definitions of translation according to three different theorists,
each of which would be discussed below.
"Translation is the process of taking the original source text (ST) and turning it
into a text in another language (the target text, TT)'' (Hatim, 2004, p. 3).
However, Catford defines translation as a process of replacing text in one
language (SL) into an equivalent text in another language (TL). (Catford, 1965, p. 20)
In addition, Hickey defines translation as a process of restating in one language
what is stated in another language. (Hickey, 1998, p. 46)
According to Nida, translating is "reproducing in the receptor language, the
closest natural equivalent of the message of the source language, first in terms of
meaning and second in terms of style." (1982, p. 12).
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Nida
in Bassnett's Translation Studies (1996, p.
16), shows a model of
translation illustrates the stages involved in a translation process:
Source language text
Receptor language translation
t
Restructuring
TRANSFER
t
i\nal)lsis ---------------------------------------------Figure 1: Translation_Stages
From the diagram, we could see the steps in transferring the meaning of SL into
TL text. The first step is anal)lsis. In the anal)Isis process, the translator anal)lzes the
message of the SL. The second step is transfer. In this second step, the translator
transfers the message of the SL into TL. The third step is restructuring, in which the
translator restructures the message of SL text into TL text in order to achieve an
equivalent meaning. (Nida and Taber, 1982, p. 33)
2.1.1 Kinds of Translation
Concerning translation, Larson (1998, p. 17-20) names three t)lpes of translation,
namel)l, (1) literal, (2) modified literal, and (3) idiomatic translation.
!. Literal translation
In literal
translation, the SL text is translated into TL text with the same
grammatical structure as SL text. i\nother term for this t)lpe of translation is known as
form-based translation. For example:
What is your name? 7 Apa adalah kamu nama?
Newmark (1988, p. 45-47) defines literal translation as a translation that makes
no change for its grammatical structure, and in its part of speech. In addition, Machali
interprets literal translation as a word-for-word translation. (2000, p, 51). While
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Moentaha (2006, p. 48) proposes that literal translation is a translation whose process of
transferring message from SL into TL without changing the grammatical structure.
2. Modified literal translation
This type of translation is similar to literal translation, but it modifies the
stmcture into the target language's structure. For example:
What is your name? 7 Apa nama kamu?
Newmark (1988, p. 45-47) states that this strategy aims to produce an original
contextual meaning in accordance with the grammatical structures of the TL.
3. Idiomatic translation
There is a type of translation that uses natural forms of the target language.
Therefore it would be completely different from literal translation since idiomatic
translation reads like it is an original writing of the target language. This type of
translation is called idiomatic translation. Here is an example:
What is your name? 7 Siapa nama kamu?
Newmark (1988, p. 45-47) points out that idiomatic translation attempts to make
the translation product still has the same meaning with the original and rhake it easily
understood by the target readers.
2.1.2 Translation Equivalence
Nida (1961, p. 130) states that there is no exact equivalence between two words
in two different languages. Therefore, to make the translation equivalent that is to
achieve that the meanings of texts in source language could be similar to those in target
language. Relating to translation equivalence, he adds that the point of translation is not
finding an exact equivalence, but a relatively close equivalence.
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Furthermore, there
are
two
types
of
equivalence, formal
and
dynamic
equivalence. Dynamic equivalence focuses on what the target readers get from target
message should be the same as what source readers get from source message, (Nida in
Bassnett, 1996, p. 26)
The most important thing is to understand that equivalence does not mean
similarity; a translator may do some changes, like addition or omission in the translation
process to make the meanings equivalence. (Machali, 2000, p. 35)
According to Larson (1998, p. 87), the problem is that there is no item that is
closely related. Larson (1998, p. 100) adds that this situation is known as mismatch of
semantic sets between languages, in which there is no vocabularies from two different
languages that completely match although they are in the same topic. In this situation,
the only solution is for the translator to match the system of one language against the
system of the second language (Larson, 1998, p. 101).
In addition, Bell finds that there are some problems of equivalence, as follow:
"Texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees (fully
or partially equivalent), in respect of different levels of presentation
(equivalent in respect of context of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc.)
and at different ranks (word-for-word), phrase-for-phrase, sentence-forsentence)." (p. 6)
2.1.3 Grammatical and Lexical Translation
Cartford (1965, p. 71) states that grammatical translation is a translation in which
SL grammatical structure is replaced by equivalent TL grammatical structure. Whereas,
lexical translation occurs when SL lexis is replaced by an equivalent TL lexis without
replacing the grammar.
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Hatim and Munday (2004, p. 34-35) proposes two types of linguistic meaning,
they are:
- Referential or denotative meaning that deals. with words as aymbols. In other
words, it is a dictionary-based meaning.
- Connotative meaning deals with the emotional effect the readers get from the
word.
2.1.4 Translation Strategies
To achieve an equivalence m translation, Moentaha (2006, p. 48-83) cites
translation strategies to translate
the terminologies from SL into TL, which are free
translation, paraphrase, replacement, addition, subtracting or omission, compression, and
syntactic derivation There are two strategies that would be used by the writer for the
analysis process, which would be discussed briefly below:
I. Adding
Adding is a process of translating terminologies by adding one or more certain
words without changing the meanings of the original. (Moentaha, 2006, p. 69-70)
For example: Saya------ gum
I am a teacher
2. Subtracting or omission
Subtracting is a translation process in which one or more words considered not
necessary omitted, without changing the original meanings. (Moentaha, 2006, p. 70-71)
For example: Saya !cembali ke mmah
I
returned --- home
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Relating to subtracting strategy, Baker (1996, p. 40), subtracting strategy, which
is also known as omission is a translation strategy that omits translating a word or
expression without changing the meaning.
Concerning translation strategies, there are seventeen strategies proposed by
Newmark (1988, p. 81-93), specifically, transference, naturalization, cultural equivalent,
functional
equivalent, descriptive equivalent, synonymy, through-translation, shifts or
transpositions, modulation, recognized translation, translation label, compensation,
reduction and expansion, paraphrase, couplets, and notes, additions, glosses. The writer
uses two out of seventeen strategies to analyze the data, which are: (I) transference and
(2) shifts or transpositions.
I. Transference
Transference is a strategy
in which terminologies of SL are adopted as TL's
terminologies (Newmark, 1988, p. 81).
According to Crystal (I997, p. 46), the synonymy of transference is borrowing,
which means taking over one language's word, or known as "loan words".
For example: English: hotel--- Indonesian: hotel
2. Shifts or Transposition
Newmark (1988, p. 85-88) defines transposition or shift as a process of
translating that changes the grammar of source language (SL) as it is transferred into the
target language (TL). This strategy involves substituting the grammatical structure of
source language into different grammatical structure of target language.
Regarding to shift, Machali (2000, p. 63-68) cites that shift or transposition is a
procedure of changing grammatical structure of SL into grammatical structure of TL.
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According to Hatim and Munday (2004, p. 145-147), shift is divided into
structure, class, unit, and intra-system shift. The one that would be discussed in the
analysis process is class shift, which occurs when there is a change in the parts of speech
of grammatical SL into grammatical TL.
Sneddon states that when a translation occurs from one into another language, ·
there is a possibility of using some parentheses connected between the SL and TL
terminologies.
"It is quite common in the print media for an Indonesian word or phrase to be followed
in parentheses by the English original" (Sneddon, 2003, p. 179).
2.1.5 Translator and the Translation
Translator also has an important role in a translation process. This could be seen
from the explanation below.
As a translator, he should be able to provide an equivalent meaning of the SL
text to the target readers by transferring them into TL text.
"... a central part of the translator's task is to help the audiences to overcome the
language barrier ...." (Hickey, 1998, p. 51)
Concerning the translation equivalence, a translator should be able to choose
terminologies in TL that has an equivalent meaning with SL terminologies.
"... the translator makes choices at the level of texture in which such a way to guide the
target text (TT) reader along routes envisaged by the source text (ST) producer towards
a communicative goal." (Hatim and Mason, 1997, p. 231)
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On translator, Larson (1998, p. 97) mentions that a translator aims to find the
best way to communicate the meaning of source text in target text. This could only
happen, if he successfully fulfils there considerations, namely, using the normal
language forms of the target language, communicating the same meaning as the source
language to the target readers, m1d making the target readers have the same response as
the source message attempts (Larson, 1998, p. 6). In addition, Machali (2000, p. 35) also
supports this statement that a translator may do some addition or omission without
changing the original meaning.
2.2 Theory of Grammar
There are two grammar theories involved to support the data analysis, they are
English and Indonesian grammar.
2.2.1 Theory of English Grammar
Each language possesses certain distinctive characteristics, which give it special
character, for example its grammatical structure. (Nida, 1982, p. 3-4)
In a process of translating, it sometimes occurs grmnmatical changes, which is
known as shift or transposition. This grammatical change is achieved in order to make
the translation more easily understood by the target readers, m1d read like it is an original
text, not a translation text. (Machali, 2000, p. 63-68)
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2.2.1.1 Part of Speech
Part of speech is a term refening to grammatical class of words. It consists of
noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, preposition, conjunction, and interjection, with
atiicle and participle. (Crystal, 1997, p. 280)
Pmis of speech are divided into verb, adjective, preposition, conjunction, noun,
determiner (Sag and Wasow, 1999, p. 62). In this thesis writing, the analysis would like
to give a brief explanation on noun, verb, and adjective only.
2.2.1.1.1 Noun
According to Collins (2006, p. 5), a noun is a word that identifies a person or
thing, which is divided into six types, count, uncount, singular, plural, collective (either
singular or plural: the public, the staff), and proper nouns (start with capital letter: Mm·y,
London).
2.2.1.1.2 Verb
Verb is a word used to express what someone or something does. Besides, verb
also used to express what happened to someone or something. (Collins, 2006, p. xxiii)
2.2.1.1.3 Adjective
Adjective is a pmt of speech that modifies and gives more detailed information
about a subject or an object.
"When you want to give more information about something than you can give by using
noun alone, you can use and adjective to identify it or describe it in more detail."
(Collins, 2006, p. 62).
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2.2.1.2 Word and Phrase
The writer would also discuss about word and phrase, which are parts of
sentence structure.
2.2.1.2.1 Word
According to Crystal (1997, p. 419), word is defined as a single expression used
in both spoken and written language that has a meaning.
In addition, Finch (2000, p. 132-133), word is a minimal free form of an
expression that stands on its own and recognized in both spoken and written language.
2.2.1.2.2 Phrase
Crystal (1997, p. 292) defines phrase as a single element of structure that consists
of more than one word.
While, according to Finch (2000, p. 112), phrase is a syntactic unit in sentences
that consists of more than one word, and is in between word and clause level.
2.2.2 Basic Theory of Indonesian Grammar
In this subchapter, the writer would like to discuss about Indonesian pruis of
speech, specifically noun, verb, and adjective. Besides, Indonesian relative clause is also
discussed below.
2.2.2.1 Part of Speech
In Indonesian, part of speech is known as "kelas
kala" or word classes.
According to Kridalaksana (1998, p. 30) Indonesian word classes are divided into 13,
16
namely,
verb,
adjectives,
nouns,
pronouns,
numerals,
adverbs,
interjections,
demonstratives, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, phatics, and interjections. There are
only three word classes that relate to the data analysis process. Those three word classes
are as noun, verb, and adjective.
2.2.2.1.1 Noun
Kridalaksana defines noun as words that could be combined with preposition, but
not with adverb (1998, p. 41). On the other hand, Sneddon states that noun is a word that
refers to a person, or thing, which then divided into two, countable (could be counted,
such as book) and uncountable noun (could not be counted, such as milk) (1996, p. 128).
Different from English grammatical structure that allows adjectives to be put
before noun (pre-nominal modifier), Indonesian grammatical structure puts adjectives
after nouns (post-nominal modifier). In other words, English grammatical rule is M-D
(menerangkan-diterangkan), and Indonesian grammatical rule is D-M (diterangkanmenerangkan). (Simatupang, 1999, p. 110)
Dardjowidjojo (1978, p. 312) points out that noun could be extracted from four
formations, that is as follows:
a. base+ an, i.e.: rintang +an= rintangan.
b. ke +base+ an, i.e.: ke + duta +an= kedutaan.
c. pe(N) + base+ an, i.e.: pen+ catat + an= pencatatan.
d. pe(R) +base+ an, i.e.: per+ Tanya+ an= pertanyaan.
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2.2.2.1.2Verb
Verb is a word that accompany noun in a sentence. It has the capacity to combine
with particle sangat, but not ke (Kridalaksana, 1998, p. 31).
2.2.2.1.3 Adjective
Adjective is a part of speech, which modifies noun. (Dardjowidjojo, 1978, p. 67).
In addition, Dardjowidjojo states that in English, adjective or a modifier is placed before
the noun. In contrast, in Indonesian structure, adjective or a modifier is placed after the
noun. However, Sneddon states that an adjective is a word that modifies a person or
thing about its size (big, small), color (red, blue), condition (clean, dirty), or other
characteristics (good, beautiful) (1996, p. 175-6). On the other hand, Kridalaksana
defines adjectives as "words that syntactically have the capacity to combine with
nouns." (1998, p. 37). The following is an example of adjective as a noun modifier:
My beautiful girl (English) - Gadis cantik saya (Indonesian)
Acijective noun
noun acijective
From these three statements about adjective, the writer would like to rely the
analysis on theory of adjective by Dardjowidjojo.
2.2.2.2 Relative Clause
Indonesian relative clause, which is showed in a word, "yang", functions to
replace either the subject or object of the inserted sentence. (Dardjowidjojo, 1978, p.
207)
Dardjowidjojo adds that unlike English, "yang" is compulsmy in Indonesian
(1978, p. 219).
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"One way of adding information about a noun is by incorporating a clause within the
noun phrase. This clause is preceded by yang and is called relative clause." (Sneddon,
1996, p. 285)
Sneddon identifies that "yang" could not be omitted, as English relative clauses,
like which, who, that could be. (1996, p. 286). For example:
Mobil yang ditubruk truk itu rusak sama sekali.
The car (which was) hit by the truck is a complete wreck.
Simatupang (1999, p.
113) proposes that English pronominal modifier, or
adjectives are usually translated into Indonesian in the form of clause of "yang", in
which "yang" is put after the noun. Here is an example:
- The blue book is missing.
Buku yang biru itu hilang.