MA in Language Teaching
Methodology
Teaching Grammar and Language Functions
1. Definitions
“A description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguistic units such as
words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in the language. It usually takes into
account the meanings and functions these sentences have in the overall system of the
language. It may or may not include the description of the sounds of a language.”
J. C. Richards, J. C. Platt J. and Platt H. Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied
Linguistics. Harlow: Longman. 1992:161
“At its heart, then, grammar consists of two fundamental ingredients – syntax and
morphology – and together they help us to identify grammatical forms which serve to enhance
and sharpen the expression of meaning.”
Batstone, Product and process: Grammar in the second language classroom. In Bygate, M.,
Tonkyn, A. and Williams, E. (eds.) Grammar and the Language Teacher. pp. 224-236.
London: Prentice Hall. 1994b:4
“Grammar is a system of rules governing the conventional arrangement and relationship of
words in a sentence.”
Brown, Teaching by Principles, An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ.:Prentice Hall Regents.1994b:347
“Grammar is a set of rules that define how words are combined or changed to form acceptable
units of meaning within language.”
Ur, A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP. 1996:87
“…grammar(ing) is one of the dynamic linguistic processes of pattern formulation in
language, which can be used by humans for making meaning in context-appropriate ways.”
Larsen-Freeman, Teaching Language: From Grammar to Grammaring. Boston: Thomson,
Heinle. 2003:142
2. Purpose of grammar teaching
The teaching of grammar means enabling language learners to use linguistic forms accurately,
meaningfully and appropriately.
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MA in Language Teaching
Methodology
3. Theories and approaches related to grammar teaching
The Grammar Translation Method
“grammar translation approaches the language first through detailed
analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to
the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target
language. It hence views language learning as consisting of little more than
memorizing rules and facts in order to understand and manipulate the
morphology and syntax of the foreign language” (Richards and
Rogers,1986:3).
The Audiolingual Method
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Grounded in structuralist linguistics and behaviourist psychology.
Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills, grammar explanation is not
given.
Inductive explanation of grammar is preferred.
Structures are taught one at a time and then sequenced based on contrastive
analysis
The Communicative Approach
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Distinction is made between acquisition and learning.
Language should be learnt by experiencing it meaningfully as a tool for
communication.
Problems occur in contexts where the availability of the communicative use of
the language is limited, and exams require a high level of grammatical
accuracy.
Aim is to achieve communicative competence (Chomsky, Hymes: possibility
feasibility, appropriacy and probability of use; Canale and Swain: linguistic,
sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competence))
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MA in Language Teaching
Methodology
The Cognitive perspective
First and second language acquisition are seen to use fundamentally the same general
information processing mechanisms.
Input: language data are given
Processing phase:
1. matching new input with existing knowledge
2. setting up new hypotheses about the language structure
3. altering the existing system
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Output: when producing utterances the students get to test theis hypotheses. The
role of corrective feedback.
4. Processes involved in grammar teaching and learning
Comprehensible input
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The learner progresses along a natural order when receiving input that is one step
beyond the learner’s current stage of linguistic competence (i+1) (Krashen's Input
Hypothesis)
Consciousness-raising
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An approach to the teaching of grammar in which instruction is viewed as a way of
raising the learner’s awareness of grammatical features of the language. This approach
is contrasted with traditional approaches to the teaching of grammar, in which the goal
is to instill correct grammatical patterns and habits directly.
Noticing
 Conscious intake of new language
 noticing is an interface between explicit and implicit knowledge
 noticing the form is facilitated when the input is meaningful to the learner
Inductive and deductive presentation of grammar
 An inductive approach is when the rule is inferred through some form of guided
discovery.(The teacher gives the students a means to discover the rule for themselves)
 A deductive approach is when the rule is presented and the language is produced
based on the rule.(The teacher gives the rule)
Declarative and procedural knowledge
 Declarative knowledge (explicit) is available to consciousness and can be used as a set
of instructions to guide behaviour through interpretative, problem-solving or analogyforming procedures
 Procedural knowledge (implicit) is not conscious and only comes about by repeated
use of declarative knowledge in productions
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MA in Language Teaching
Methodology
Input and intake
 Input has been defined as “...the potentially processable language data which are made
available by chance or by design, to the language learner” (Sharwood-Smith,
1993:167). In language teaching input refers to the language resources, textbooks,
materials, and classroom discourse that are used to initiate the language learning
process.
 Intake is that part of the input that has actually been processed and turned to
knowledge of some kind. Input is data that the second language learner hears and
intake is “that portion of the L2 which is assimilated and fed into the interlanguage
system”
5. The PPP lesson (Presentation, Practice, Production)
Presentation stage: content is not clearly defined, views on it are not consistent.
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learners receive input concerning a certain language phenomenon
through various presentation techniques the teacher leads the learners to notice the
language form in focus
 given the multidimentional relationship between form, concept and function + time
constraints and the limitations of human memory the aim of a grammar lesson should
be limited to dealing with a single form-concept-function combination.
 this should be demonstrated clearly through an appropriate context.
 focusing learner’s attention on meaning before shifting their attention to form has 3
goals:
1. the concept becomes clear
2. noticing is facilitated as learners have familiarised themselves with the co-text
3. noticing is achieved within a rich communicative environment.
Practice stage comprises a series of activities which can be seen as progressing on a control
cline. At the controlled end the focus is on the form, at the free end the focus is on the
meaning
 Controlled practice-drilling
 Free practice
Production stage: Free language use is fostered by the use of Communicative/information
gap activities.
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MA in Language Teaching
Methodology
6. General model for introducing new grammar
FORM - FUNCTION - MEANING
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lead-in
elicitation
highlighting form and pronunciation
accurate reproduction
concept checking
7. Principles of teaching grammar
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Grammar should be taught frequently and in little bits with a lot of recycling
and revision
Grammar should be taught systematically with enough flexibility to react to
learners' needs.
Grammar should be presented and practiced in meaning-oriented activities.
A combination of inductive and deductive presentations should be used.
Limited use of the L1 should be made possible.
Problem-solving grammar activities should be used to develop learners' active
knowledge of grammar.
Elicitation and corrective feedback should be used. (Kontra, E.H. 2006. Topics
in the Methodology of Teaching EFL)
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