INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATION THEORY AND
BEHAVIOR, 8 (3), 313-342 FALL 2005
SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND:
THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION THEORY
Kenneth S. Rhee and Tracey Honeycutt Sigler*
ABSTRACT . Motivation theory in the 20 th century has evolved to meet the changing social, political, and economic environment. The purpose of this paper is to examine the developmental path of modern motivation theory from the perspective of the Tao and the cyclical nature of Yin and Yang. We review motivation theory from the Industrial Revolution to the present. The developmental path during the past 100 years consists of seven distinct stages, each stage representing a significant shift in theory as well as a shift in the social, political, and economic environment in the United States. The dominant theme that emerges from the analysis is the discourse between science and humanity, and the revolving cycle of these fundamental theories throughout the century.
INTRODUCTION
Human motivation has been the Promethean seed of human growth and development. It would be hard to imagine all the progress we have made without examining our motivation for growth and development.
Although human motivation might have played an essential role in human development, the first usage of the word motivation did not come into play until 1873, and it was not until 1904 when the word was used in psychological and sociological meaning in the English language
(Simpson, 1989).
--------------------
* Kenneth S. Rhee, Ph.D., and Tracey Honeycutt Sigler, Ph.D., are an Associate
Professor and an Assistant Professor, respectively, Department of Management and Marketing, Northern Kentucky University at Highland Heights, Kentucky.
Dr. Rhee’s research interests include organizational theory, emotional intelligence, leadership competencies, and teamwork. Dr. Sigler’s research interests include organizational behavior, service-learning, and the interface between work and family.

Copyright © 2005 by PrAcademics Press

314 RHEE & SIGLER
The emergence of the word motivation in our vocabulary is consistent with the shift from an agrarian to an industrial society. In the agrarian economy, motivation came mostly in the form of selfsufficiency–the need to produce sufficient food to sustain one’s family.
The mode of production was tied closely to livelihood and there was an intimate connection between individual laborer and production. The
Industrial Revolution however separated livelihood from production creating a situation where the individual laborer was removed from the object and process of production (Marx, 1963). This shift is also consistent with Bell’s (1973) contention that pre-industrial societies are mostly agrarian societies while industrial societies are good-producing societies that are technical and rationalized.
In the pre-Industrial Revolution economy the prevailing thought was
“starving men made better workers;” however, during the Industrial
Revolution, the rise in the standard of living and the desire for growth and accumulation of capital fueled the need to continue to motivate workers for higher productivity (Wren, 1994). Even though the primary driver of change during the Industrial Revolution might have been the search for the most economical mode of production, the change impacted the social, political, and economic fabric of life. This is consistent with
Marx’s view that “the mode of production of material life determines the general character of the social, political, and spiritual process of life”
(Marx, 1963, p. 51).
The economic, political, and social landscape has changed drastically since the Industrial Revolution, and modern motivational theories have also changed to accommodate the changing landscape. During the past
100 years, specific motivation theories became popular only to be displaced by different theories in another period. A theory might become popular because of specific environmental factors that influence the ideology during the period. We propose that the examination of economic, social, and political factors during the past one hundred years helps illuminate how modern motivational theories have developed during the period. Although a micro examination of the development might be useful in understanding the cause-and-effect relationship, it might miss the overall system pattern of development—the macro perspective. In order to understand the overall developmental pattern, we also need to examine the longitudinal flow of the developmental path.
This paper follows a two-prong approach. First, we examine each stage of development looking into economic, social, and political factors, and

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 315 second, we examine the overall pattern of motivational theory development during the past hundred years. There are a number of competing theories that might help us understand the overall developmental path of modern motivational theories–management fad, evolutionary development, and Taoist yin/yang theory.
Contrary to Dubin’s (1978) premise that good theories aspire to be universal and enduring, modern management theories, especially motivational theories, could be perceived as part of management fads that come and go (Micklethwait & Wooldridge, 1996; DiMaggio &
Powell, 1983). Abrahamson and Fairchild (1999, p. 709) examined the ebb and flow of transient management theories and concluded that “the often-noted waves in the popularity of discourse that promotes single, fashionable management techniques and can cause their transient use by thousands of organizations,” and thus creating a long latency phase followed by a phase of “wave-like” ephemeral popularity with a peak.
Staw and Epstein (2000) supported this fashion or fad thesis by stating that jumping onto the popular bandwagons does not bring objective performance improvement, but rather social approval. Therefore, the legitimacy of prevailing technique might be driving the fashion cycle.
The transient and transitory nature of popular management theories would make it difficult to see the overall pattern of motivational theory development. In fact, the notion of fad or fashion seems to suggest somewhat of a chaotic or haphazard path of development since most theories would emerge mysteriously, enjoy brief popularity, and meet with a precipitous demise. This seems to be contradictory to the evolutionary developmental theory. According to the evolutionary framework (Gould, 2003), there is a continuous path of development where living organisms adapt their genetic makeup to shifts in the environmental. Occasionally such adaptation could be drastic enough to cause a mutation, but if we draw an evolutionary tree, it would not be difficult to trace the developmental path.
Evolutionary theory has been applied a number of times in the field of organizational behavior. One of the most prominent applications, population ecology, examines how the natural or environmental selection process transforms a population over time (Baum & Oliver, 1991; Hanna
& Freeman, 1977; Freeman & Hanna, 1983). Variable such as age, size, and density dependence play a role in determining the continuing survival rate of the organization. A popular topic of analysis within

316 RHEE & SIGLER population ecology has been mortality, rates of effects of change and performance (Baum & Oliver, 1991; Miner, Amburgey & Stearns, 1990;
Barnett & Carroll, 1995).
In addition, organizational evolution theory (Astley, 1985; Bruderer
& Singh, 1996; Morel & Ramanujam, 1999) has been another avenue of application for evolutionary theory. Organizational evolution theory, which is based on biological evolutionary theory, treats organizations as complex systems adapting to environmental variations while attempting to influence the environment. Contrary to population ecology models which assume that it is the innate attributes of an organization that determine the rate of survival, organizational evolutionary theory attempts to incorporate the proactive adaptation model. According to
Bruderer and Singh (1996), a population of organizational forms that is capable of learning will discover a viable organizational form much more quickly than a population of their inert counterparts. This is true in spite of the selection process being strictly Darwinian: “even when acquired traits are not heritable, selection will favor the capacity to acquire traits”
(Silver, 1998, p. 1323).
According to the evolutionary framework, any new motivational theory goes into a pool of all existing motivational theories and, as variants in the system, competes for common resources and survival.
The natural selection process preserves and perpetuates the theory that is most robust and popular. This dominant winner, “the fittest survivor” would dominate and prosper, and the branch would evolve over time.
The rest of the theories will either become extinct, or stay dormant
(recessive) until the tide of environmental favoritism changes. The evolutionary concept is intriguing in that it can both accommodate and explain Kuhn’s (1970) normal science and paradigm shift. In evolutionary terms, Kuhn’s normal science refers to adaptation and survival while Kuhn’s paradigm shift refers to mutation in evolutionary science. Regardless of which types of evolutionary theory we subscribe to, if it is a good explanation of theory development, we should be able to construct the evolutionary tree and identify the developmental path.
Another pattern that might explain the developmental path is
Taoism. Tao is the universal principle of existence, the origin of Heaven and Earth, the mother of all things, eternal and one, all pervasive, and absolute. It’s the way of nature. One of the important concepts in
Taoism is presence in absence. In other words, one exists because the

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 317 other exists. Matter cannot exist without antimatter. As such, yin and yang are two equal but opposing forces within the universe, and the interaction between these two forces produce change within the universe.
Yin and Yang balances the universe, and any push in one direction would then be adjusted by the pull on the other direction, eventually resulting in the correct balance again (Lao, 1961). Under yang are the principle of maleness, the sun, creation, heat, light, heaven, dominance, and so on whereas under yin are the principles of femaleness, the moon, completion, cold, darkness, and material forms. The production of yin from yang and yang from yin occurs cyclically and constantly so that no one principle continually dominates the other. The temporary dominance of one over the other will eventually reverse itself.
The Yin and Yang principle can also help us to understand the development of motivation theory in the last century as the tension between science and humankind. An important component of human progress has been that of technology. Beginning with the invention of the carving tool, humankind embarked on a journey of discovery and invention that has fueled our growth and development. Technology is ultimately a human invention. The technology that fueled the progress of man was more pronounced in the twentieth century with the advent of the Industrial Revolution. We create technology and expect to govern it, but instead, it governs our lives and we become slave to it. Ultimately humans rebel against it, only to become re-ensnared in the rising new technology, and the cycle begins all over again. This ideological struggle governs the flow of modern motivational theories in the twentieth century. This pattern is interwoven by two opposing forces: humanity and science (Adas, 1989). This conflict between humanism and science is aptly captured as the yin-yang theory of modern motivation.
This paper traces the development of modern motivational theory from the Industrial Revolution where the first shift in our thinking about human motivation occurred to the present. The developmental path during the past 100 years consists of seven distinct stages, each stage representing a significant shift in theory as well as a shift in the social, political, and economic environment in the United States. The development of motivation theory begins with a focus on science in the
Industrial Revolution, the rise of scientific management. In the second stage of development we saw the focus of motivation shift to humankind with the human relations school of thought. These first two stages begin

318 RHEE & SIGLER the pattern of a movement between science and humankind in dominant motivation theories, the yin and the yang. The third and subsequent stages can be described in terms of their emphasis on science or humankind. Finally, the future stage of development is explored in terms of the yin and yang theory for explaining the development of motivation theory. The dominant theme that emerges from the analysis is the discourse between science and humanity, and the revolving cycle of these fundamental theories throughout the century.
SEVEN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Stage 1 (1900-1930): Scientific Management (Yang)
The Industrial Revolution impacted the economic, social, and political landscape–the way we live, think, and behave–beyond what was once imaginable. The wave of technological changes introduced by the
Revolution produced a massive growth in productivity as well as a new social class of industrialists. The revolution also caused the increased use of common labor to fuel the incredible rate of growth. The need to motivate and train these new workers became a paramount concern for the industrialists and managers during this period. A broader theory of monetary incentives was needed in this new age of machines and automation, and a variety of motivational theories emerged during this period all competing for the attention of the industrialists and managers.
Scientific management, Yang, emerged as the dominant motivational theory during this period.
Frederick Taylor (1911) introduced scientific management to motivate and increase the productivity of workers. Taylor, while studying the workers' performance, realized that a number of factors contributed to the less-than satisfactory productivity in the factory: longterm job security, self-interests against management, and batch processing. He perceived that workers did not work to their full potential for the fear that their jobs would be eliminated once their work became exhausted. Taylor would analyze the time it took to complete each component of a task and establish a differential rate system by which performance would be measured and reward calculated. The differential rate for increased output gave the workers the incentive to produce more to receive more since Taylor’s model was based on individual productivity rather than the popular collective profit sharing scheme at

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 319 the time which divided the profit pool regardless of individual productivity.
While scientific management was gaining momentum in the early twentieth century, there were other management theories that focused more on human factors than scientific methods. The ideas of management thinkers such as Mary Parker Follett (1918) and Chester
Barnard (1938) were still fermenting in the background, while a few within the scientific management camp believed that the successful implementation of scientific management involved collaboration and cooperation of employees. For instance, Gantt (1919) believed that a healthy industrial condition occurs when the workers feel that their labor is sold at the highest market value, and that teaching and helping would increase profits. Gilbreth (1914) felt that the attention paid by management to workers would demonstrate management's interest and promote productivity and reduce monotony. Poor believed that top management should cheer on workers and become the soul of the enterprise by breathing life into the firm and producing a unified front
(Chandler, 1956). Unfortunately, for many employers and managers these ideas took a back seat to the scientific management methodology that offered the promise of productivity and efficiency improvement.
There were several environmental factors that contributed to the dominance of scientific management over other competing theories. A shift in the economic focus from deficiency to incentives provided the right type of impetus for scientific management. In the mercantile period, the prevailing theme concerning motivation was "hunger." If the wages were kept at a minimum, then the workers had no choice but to continue to work. The need for survival would be the motivating factor in workers' continued work in the system. Adam Smith (2000) however had postulated that "economic man" would be motivated more by increase in wages and incentives for higher performance rather than
“starvation.” Smith believed that the invisible hand of the market economy would encourage private initiative, competition, and innovation, so that self-interest rather than collective interest would fuel the economic growth.
Social ethos with regard to work ethics during this period also provided the requisite variety needed for scientific management to evolve. Weber observed that the Protestants believed in their duty to work (calling), to use their wealth wisely, and to live austere lives. The

320 RHEE & SIGLER work was done to please God, and it was their duty to maximize the potential that God had provided: “waste of time is thus the first and in principle the deadliest of sins” (Weber, 1958, p. 157). Since the premise of scientific management lies with minimizing waste and eliminating inefficiency, scientific management could be perceived as a tool that could help us fulfill one’s duty for God's calling.
Improvements in transportation and communication made it possible for the capitalist owners to produce and market products in volume since they were no longer tied to geographical locality or market. The largescale capital investment for mass production needed to be recouped, and optimal production became a minimum requirement for the current and future success of the firm. Economies of scale became a new key behind corporate growth and success and efficiency became the driving force of industrial development and growth (Chandler, 1990). Since the thrust of efficiency was the underlying foundation for the theory of scientific management, there was a natural affinity that bounded the theory to practice.
Given the tremendous technology push during the Industrial
Revolution, engineering and science ruled supreme over humanism in this period, and the motivational theory based on science and engineering was the savior that would lead to productivity haven. However, one of the downsides of scientific management was its fallacy in treating the workers as a productivity unit that could be improved without giving any thought to their unique individuality and personality. This tendency to
"mechanize" human beings not only generated abuse from factory owners but also resistance from the workers. The Jungle by Upton
Sinclair (1988) depicted decrepit factory conditions and the exploitation of poor factory workers by avarice capitalists.
Stage 2 (1930-1945): Human Relations (Yin)
The Human Relations Movement was the dominant force of motivation in Stage 2. This movement focused on people as social and self-actualizing and signified the beginning of the “Social Person”
(Wren, 1994) era. The shift in focus on people, or Yin, was influenced by the social, political, and economic conditions of the time.
In October of 1929 the stock market crashed and lost 40% of its worth. Factories and banks closed down and farm income fell 50%. By
1932 approximately one out of four was unemployed. The great

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 321 depression saw people focusing on survival as their fortunes disappeared.
Bread lines were common and the line of a popular song “Brother can you spare a dime” painted a picture of life during this time. The Great
Depression shifted what was important to people. The Industrial
Revolution was perceived as bringing misery and suffering to workers.
Big business was seen as a contributor to the nation’s ills and people turned inward and to each other for reassurance.
Government stepped in to create new legislation to curb abusive business practices and to protect labor and individual welfare. President
Roosevelt led the charge for government to take an increasing role in the lives of people and business in his program known as the New Deal.
Legislation created social security, fair labor standards, unemployment insurance, and the National Labor Relations Board. Labor unions increased their membership and their power greatly when the National
Industrial Recovery act was passed to, among other things, give employees the right to organize and bargain collectively. The country’s emphasis shifted from economic growth to social and labor welfare.
This shift to social and labor welfare was reinforced by research such as the Hawthorne studies that shifted attention away from technological improvement (Yang) to human improvement (Yin) as a way to increase productivity. The Hawthorne studies were initiated as an attempt to investigate a scientific management question of the relationship between illumination and worker productivity. When unexpected results were recorded-productivity went up even when the illumination was very lowthe study was abandoned because there were too many variables that could have affected the results-most notably the human factors.
Experiments were continued with a focus on the social system and researchers concluded that the improved performance was linked only marginally to the incentive payment system. The participative style of the supervisor and the influence of group norms and social collaboration were much more important in explaining motivation. The human intervention, the consistent attention and care placed on human beings, made a difference in how they performed.
In addition to the Hawthorne studies, other theories emerged to reinforce the dominant standing of human relations during this period.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was introduced in 1943 as the focus of motivation theory turned towards meeting people’s needs through the social aspects of the workplace and group. While it did not become

322 RHEE & SIGLER influential until later in the next stage, we see that it emerged as a competing theory when the emphasis shifted to the human side of motivation. Given the emphasis on human interactions, the study of group dynamics emerged and Kurt Lewin opened the research center on group dynamics at MIT in 1945. This theory became influential some years later but the initial impetus occurred in this stage. Further, interpersonal communication was seen as contributing to the social climate so training on reducing barriers to communication and enhancing interpersonal skills of managers became popular
The human relations approach urged managers to focus on human skills, emphasize groups and belongingness needs, and create mechanisms to equalize power such as unions and participative leadership. “People became an organization’s most vital asset, not out of sentimentality or moral uplift, but based on the view that concern for employee welfare would increase worker efficiency” (Wren, 1994, p.
167).
During this time other important work was bridging the gap between the scientific management and the human relations school. Mary Parker
Follett (1919; 1926; 1937) focused her thoughts about managing on the group rather than the individual. She advocated for cooperation and the resolution of conflict through integration where managers worked toward commonality of interests. She was one of the first to describe empowerment when she wrote of mangers developing ‘power-with’ instead of ‘power-over’ employees. According to Follett, the essence of good human relations was working with someone rather than for someone. She suggested that the basis for control in organizations was self-directing individuals who recognized commonality between their goals and those of the organization. Thus we see the seeds of Yin being created.
Chester Barnard (1938) focused on the nature of cooperative systems. He described an organization as a collection of human beings whose activities were coordinated as a system through willingness to cooperate, a common purpose, and communication. Managers could increase willingness through incentives or change attitudes through a common purpose developed through communication. Barnard also addressed the issue of power in organizations with his theory on authority. He believed that authority was contingent upon both the character of the order and acceptance by subordinates, thus the

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 323 importance of developing cooperation. While these concepts were not actually put into action by many organizations at this time, the ideas espoused by Follett and Barnard were to re-emerge again in future stages.
When the United States entered World War II in 1941, the attention of the nation shifted toward winning the war. The war effort focused organizations and employees on supporting the armed forces with everything from weapons to money to volunteers and draftees. This stage ended when the war was over and the post war recovery turned into an economic expansion.
Stage 3 (1945-1960): Social Ethic Stage
Stage 3 saw North America in the throes of a post-war expansion.
The social, economic, and political conditions of the time supported motivation theories which were a combination of theories from the previous two stages , a midpoint in the swing between Yin and Yang.
There was no single dominant motivation theory during this stage.
Popular theories that addressed motivation seemed to combine the efforts in the previous two stages by attempting to use science to address the human issue of belongingness. If managers knew that the organization man was motivated by a need to belong to his community, they could create “scientific” pay systems to motivate his behavior. Thus, organizations were again focusing on a scientific or rational approach to motivating employees. However, given the stage 2 focused on people as social beings, now the emphasis was on creating an incentive system that employees would perceive as a rational reason to exert effort.
The end of the war brought prosperity to the United States as the world’s richest economy. New industries and firms emerged to take advantage of the expansion. Growth in the automobile, housing, and defense industries spurred the economy. Upward mobility and middleclass status became a primary goal for many Americans. Hard work, family, and self-sacrifice were defining values of this stage which has been called the “era of self-denial” (Boyatzis, 1990). Self-denial and hard work brought middle-class status, signified by material possessions such as owning a home and a car, and the ability to support large families which in turn contributed to the baby boom. People remembered their experience during the Great Depression and worked to make sure they would not be in that position again.

324 RHEE & SIGLER
Conformity to group norms became important as people struggled to make sure they were able to keep up with their neighbor’s purchases.
The growth of suburbs, shopping centers, highways, and even television facilitated achievement of the American Dream. William H. Whyte
(1956) wrote about the changes in society as a shift from the Protestant
Ethic (Yang) to the Social Ethic (Yin) in his book entitled “The
Organization Man.” The Social Ethic legitimizes the pressures of society against the individual. Whereas the Protestant Ethic encouraged hard work and survival of the fittest as the most practical and moral path to success, the social ethic portrayed man as part of society with a responsibility to support the common good (Whyte, 1956). The main points of the social ethic include: 1) a belief in the importance of the group, 2) belongingness as the ultimate need of the individual, and 3) the use of science to achieve belongingness (Whyte, 1956).
This concept of the social ethic was applied in organizations to design pay and motivation systems that explicitly linked pay and behavior. For example, Drucker (1954) advocated the use of
Management by Objectives (MBO) where employees participated in setting individual goals that supported the goals of the organization. The employee was then evaluated after a set amount of time on his performance in meeting those goals. In another example, the Lincoln
Electric Company introduced an individual incentive plan based on quality and quantity of output. Employees managed themselves and received rewards and recognition for their skills and efforts (Wren,
1994). An alternative example, the Scanlon plan, rewarded the entire group of employees for suggestions, developed joint committees for discussing and proposing money saving techniques, and allowed workers to share in reduced costs (Wren, 1994).
Stage 4 (1960-1980): Human Potential
In Stage 4 we saw society shift to a social agenda and an overt focus on Yin. The prosperity of the previous stage led to what has been called a
“psychology of affluence” (Boyatzis, 1990) where people seemed to believe that all of their economic troubles were over and that middle class or better was achievable by all. People focused on correcting past inequities experienced by minorities, the handicapped, and the elderly as well as improving education and access to medical care for everyone.
The “welfare” state was not going to be generated by the privileged few, but by ordinary citizens. John F. Kennedy was elected president on a

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 325 campaign of change where he promised to move aggressively into the new decade. His first inaugural address included the now infamous appeal “Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country” and it seems that many were prepared to do just that.
There was also pressure to make business more accountable through the creation of professional management. Government stepped in to control business by creating the Occupational Safety and Health Act,
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, and the Clean Air Act.
Government also played a major role in the mission to resolve inequity in opportunity and condition by creating the Office of Economic
Opportunity, implementing Medicaid and Medicare, providing funding for public schools, creating the Department of Housing and Urban
Development, passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and creating the
Environmental Protection Agency in 1970.
In management and motivation theory, the emphasis was again on people as social beings (Yin) and there was a great proliferation of motivation theories during this stage. Just as society was focused on helping all segments of the population reach the potential for middle class and success, motivation theories focused on helping employees meet their needs. The popularity of motivation theory may have been influenced by the report on the state of business education (Gordon &
Howell, 1959) on the need for more behavioral and social science in the business curriculum. Managers needed to motivate their employees if they were going to be successful so universities with business programs needed to be teaching theories of motivation.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1962) first emerged during stage 2 but did not become a dominant theory until stage 4. His basic tenet was that there are five categories of human needs that account for most of human behavior. These needs are arranged in a hierarchy indicating which needs must be satisfied first: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. The implication for managers is to recognize the needs that are motivating their employees and to create a work environment that helps them meet those needs. Note the departure from earlier stages where it was assumed that all workers were motivated solely by money.
Frederick Herzberg’s theory of motivation was based on the idea that the factors on the job that cause positive attitudes are different from the

326 RHEE & SIGLER job factors that cause negative attitudes (Herzberg, Mausner &
Snyderman, 1959). When hygiene factors of the job, including policies, satisfaction with supervisor, relations with peers, and working conditions, are inadequate, employees will be dissatisfied. To make workers satisfied and thus motivate them, managers needed to incorporate motivator factors such as opportunities to achieve, interesting work, opportunities for advancement, and responsibility into the job.
While his methods and conclusions have been questioned, the basic idea of motivator and hygiene factors continues to play a dominant role in current motivation theory where the content of the job is emphasized.
Based on his own experiences as a manager, Douglas McGregor articulated the notion in 1960 that assumptions about human nature determined the ways managers organized, led, controlled and motivated their people. Theory X was the basic assumption that people would not work unless coerced and that people do not seek responsibility in their jobs. Theory Y assumed the opposite where people were seen as able and willing to exercise self-direction and control and to seek responsibility. McGregor saw scientific management as a hard Theory
X and the human relations as a soft Theory X because there had been no change in the assumptions underlying human nature. He saw Theory Y as integrating the organization’s and the individual’s goals much as
Follett had described.
The need for achievement, the need for power, and the need for affiliation are identified by McClelland in his Theory of Needs as primary motives that people learn through their experiences. The need for achievement motive has received the most study and may be considered a form of intrinsic motivation. It has been defined as “…a struggle against one’s own standards of excellence…” (Pinder, 1998, p.
171). Research indicates that the need for achievement can be learned
(McClelland, 1965) so managers might invest in training for employees.
They may also identify what motivates their employees and place them in situations that help them meet their needs.
A second focus of motivation theorists in this stage was on the cognitive processes used in determining motivation. These theories, including Equity theory and Expectancy theory, address the question of how people decide whether to exert effort toward an organization’s goals.

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 327
Adam’s equity theory (1963) proposed that people compare themselves to others to determine whether their work situation is fair and they will take steps to change the situation to correct unfair situations.
Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) indicates that people will be willing to exert effort toward the organization’s goals when they believe they will be able to perform in ways that lead to desirable rewards. Both of these theories emphasize the importance of perception and individual differences in values and needs.
With the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963, the country searched for another true leader throughout this stage. Lyndon B.
Johnson’s decisions to escalate the Vietnam War were unpopular with many engaged in the social agenda. The Watergate scandal involving
Richard M. Nixon, and Jimmy Carter’s political and economic ineffectiveness in dealing with the oil embargo by the OPEC nations, a recession in the United States, and American hostages in Iran created a huge leadership vacuum in the country. Thus, we began to see theories emerge during this stage that emphasized the importance of leadership.
The path-goal theory of leadership (1974) and the charismatic leadership
(1976) were identified as ways that leaders could help employees meet their goals. Another theory that emerged in this stage was an attempt to combine the two motivation approaches, scientific and human, into one theory called sociotechnical systems theory. This theory acknowledges the existence and importance of both technical and social systems and attempts to create an organization design that maximizes both. While none of these theories reached dominance in this stage, we will see that they resuscitate from their dormancy in future stages.
Stage 5 (1980-1990): Competitive Pragmatism
The dominant organizational theories of stage 5, such as goal setting and Management by Objectives (MBO), focused on tangible outcomes and signal a return to the Yang, a focus on science. Both goal setting and
MBO focused on establishing specific and clear goals or objectives that can be pursued systematically. Locke and Latham (1990) defined a goal as something that the person wants to achieve. The goal setting process involves identifying achievement outcomes and steps to achieve such outcomes. Effective goals need to be specific (“cut cost by 3% or increase quarterly profits by 5%”), challenging, and reachable. As with goal setting, MBO attempts to align the organizational goals and

328 RHEE & SIGLER employees’ objectives (Drucker, 1954). In a sense, MBO is a specialized goal setting process. The purpose of these theories is to identify the ways in which employees would be motivated to achieve their goals in the most efficient manner.
A number of factors contributed to the dominance of the motivational theories that focused more on tangible and numerical improvement. The Oil Shock and the Iranian hostage crisis that had sent the US spiraling into a rapid decline in the 1970s became a long lost memory in the 1980s as the economy once again took off, fueled by a boom in the financial market. Creative financial strategies and maneuvering created an aura of invincibility in the financial market.
Young professionals, the beneficiaries of skyrocketing financial markets, were beginning to flaunt their wealth and a quick expectation of success was ubiquitous. One was considered to be a failure if he did not become a millionaire or a Vice President of a Fortune 500 company by the age of
30 ("MBAs and success," 1986).
The psychological make-up of success was largely based upon extrinsic values of success. The desire for quick financial success became the motivational factor – the external measuring stick.
Furthermore, this rapid rise to the top engendered a culture of selfishness
(“me first”) in society, which reinforced the motivational theories that allowed individual achievement. In fact, “Looking out for #1” became a dominant theme among career-minded individuals in America
(Schlender, 1992).
The overnight financial success and rapid social mobility produced a social climate of short-term orientation. One of the popular financial techniques was to break up a company and sell each component of the company at a piecemeal. Thus, mergers and acquisitions of 1980s could be characterized as destructive (Newport, 1989). The merger mania was further fueled by Reagan’s conservative economic policies of deregulation. The deregulation created the atmosphere of “lawlessness” in which many investors (such as Mike Milken) tested the legal boundaries. The immense tax cut supported by “supply-side economics” created other short-term perspectives for consumers—enjoy the present by mortgaging the future.
The above environmental factors made goal setting or MBO attractive to employers and employees. Given specific and tangible aspects of goal setting, it was easy for management to establish outcomes

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 329
(often increased in profits and reduction in cost) and manage expectations of outsiders, especially investors. Furthermore, goal setting or MBO provided quick feedback and allowed for quick improvement.
Often quantity preceded quality, and in a sense, efficiency won over effectiveness (Locke, Smith, Erez, Chah & Schaffer, 1994).
Although the decade of the 1980s has to be classified as a period of growth and expansion, not all was rosy. The late financial boom of the
1980s all but disappeared after the stock market crash of 1987 (Black
Monday). Furthermore, the decline of U.S. auto and electronics industries was merely the tip of the iceberg as far as the trend was concerned. U.S. corporations shifted their manufacturing base from the
United States to overseas in order to compete with Japanese and other
Asian firms and to shore up profits in order to maintain their market value.
As firms tried to recover from the down-trodden economy, reengineering became popular in corporate America (Hammer &
Champy, 1993). Reengineering is a radical process of redesigning an organization in order to improve its efficiency. In a sense, this is remarkably similar to scientific management that was discussed in the stage 1. In fact, both goal setting and MBO also inherited the traits of scientific management: emphasis on efficiency and hard numerical quotas. Perhaps the demise of scientific methods was premature. It was simply lying dormant waiting to be resurrected.
One of the competing theories during this period was sociotechnical systems. Sociotechnical theory attempts to merge the social and technical aspects of organizing (Pasmore, 1988). The theory recognizes not only the differences between technical process and social process within the organization but also the interdependence between the two.
Since implementing or modifying a technical process without giving thoughts to its social process often resulted in dismal failures, an ideal organization design would call for a harmonious and collaborative marriage between the social system (people) and the technical system
(knowledge, techniques, and tools) that tries to meet the needs of the organizational environment (customers, market, and industry). Here we see scientific management and human relations combined into a new theory.

330 RHEE & SIGLER
Although these theories gained some following during this period, they were largely overshadowed by the dominant theories. The lure and attractiveness of short-term gains and profitability left theories such as sociotechnical theory or quality control less popular than other theories that could provide tangible results. In summary, certain variants of scientific management gained dominance over other variants of human relations or recombined theories.
Stage 6 (1990-2000): Information and Knowledge Revolution
If the early 20th century was defined by the Industrial Revolution, the Information Revolution would define the late 20th and early 21 st century. The rise of Internet as the de factor communication standard signified a truly global community. The phenomenon of dotcoms in the
1990s accentuated by the financial benefits of ISP's (Initial Stock
Purchase) was unrivaled in our history.
Interestingly, one of the “left-overs” from the 1980s that gained prominence in the early 1990s was Total quality management (TQM).
Quality management based upon statistical methodology gained some momentum during the previous stage. A crop of quality control departments started to pop up in corporate America (Evans & Lindsay,
2002). During this time, there was a transformation from the statistical quality methodology into a systems approach incorporating a number of key components of human relations school. Deming (1982, 1986) believed that most of the quality problems in the organization stemmed not from employees’ lack of desire or carelessness but from problems in the system that allowed such behaviors. His Fourteen principles described the system problems that often detracted from quality and productivity .
Even though TQM is the reincarnation of scientific management (Yang), a major difference between scientific management and TQM is that TQM incorporates the human motivational factors (Yin) that make it a complete human motivational approach rather then a mere process improvement (Juran, 1989). Thus, we see that the final form of
TQM includes aspects of both Yin and Yang.
The notion of self-management also transformed the use of teams, one of the popular trends in the 1990s. As a result of the wider acceptance of TQM and Japanese management practices, more and more teams were used in corporate America (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993;
Larson & LaFasto, 1989). In self-managed teams, a team leader is

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 331 elected or team members share the leadership function. Selfmanagement and teamwork go hand in hand with the notion of empowerment. Empowerment is a broad term that describes the underlying philosophy of giving power to people who are currently deprived or powerless, a focus on Yin.
If the 1980s financial boom created young millionaires who flaunted their wealth, the 1990s Information Revolution created young millionaires and billionaires who created foundations and donated to charitable organizations. Pragmatic self-interest exhibited by the 1980s young professionals was transformed into romantic self-fulfillment.
Although self was in the vogue again, this time the "self" took on a different spin, for self-development became a top priority. Leadership development, which enjoyed a brief popularity in the late 1970s reemerged from its dormancy and was in vogue again in the late 1990s.
Topics such as leadership and management (Kotter, 1999), emotional competencies (Goleman, 1998), and leadership challenge (Kouzes &
Posner, 1995) all took front stage in motivational theories. On a personal front, alternative lifestyles and career choices were explored by generation Xer's who had already achieve "conventional" success
(Deutschman, 1990; Farnham, 1996). The proliferation of self-help books, videos, and TV infomercials was another indication of focus on
"self" as one of the primary motivators.
Another dominant organizational theory in the last decade was the learning organization. Senge (1990, p. 3) defined a learning organization as an “organization where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to learn together.” Again, this is a focus on humankind or Yin. As the importance of knowledge generation and management increased, organizational learning became a sustainable competitive advantage among different firms (Stata, 1989; Stewart,
1997). Motivating employees in a learning organization is one of the challenges of this stage.
The rise in popularity of organization learning coincides with the emergence of the knowledge economy. The Information Revolution generated the knowledge-based economy, and knowledge management became an essential task for large organizations. Knowledge became the

332 RHEE & SIGLER key competitive advantage as natural resources or technology were in the past (Sakaiya, 1991).
Stage 7 (2000 and Beyond): Future
What does the future hold for motivation theory? While we cannot predict the social, political, and economic factors that will occur in the future, we can identify some possible scenarios of what to expect. Here we review how our analysis of the Yin and Yang approach to the evolution of motivation theory might provide clues on what to expect in the future.
The events of September 11, 2001 caused a catatonic change in the face of American life and created a shift out of stage 6 and into the future. In the aftermath of tragedy, people questioned their choices about work and family and values. The global marketplace, with all of its opportunities and threats, became a reality for everyone. Even those who were not involved in currency markets or politics were impacted by terrorism.
Driving forces in the 21 st century include globalization, changing technology, a move from resource-based to manmade brainpower industries (Thurow, 1997), and the continued importance of servicebased businesses. The increasing importance of knowledge and customer service workers in terms of numbers and contribution to organizations may require a new form of motivation.
Two different approaches to dealing with the current competitive atmosphere have emerged. On the one hand, we see companies increasing the use of temporary workers, outsourcing functions, and downsizing, thus reducing the connection between people and their organizations (Pfeffer, 1998). This model views employees as a cost to be controlled, the Yang influence. “Individual piecework and a return to the control-oriented ideas of Frederick Taylor and the scientific management school are enjoying resurgence…” (Pfeffer, 1998, p. xvi).
In this "core-periphery" model of employment (see Pollert, 1988 for discussion), core employees, those who perform the line functions of the organization that make up its distinctive competence, will be the only
“permanent” employees. Support functions and low-skill jobs will be outsourced or performed by workers on the periphery who are hired and fired with fluctuations in demand. Implicit in this model are two

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 333 different approaches to motivation. The majority of employees on the periphery, the contingent workers, will have short-term or part-time contracts with the knowledge that they may be fired at any time. They will be in the same situation as firms that are hired to perform specific functions such as payroll. The core employees, those are very important to the organization, may require a different motivation approach.
Organizations who use downsizing to control their costs are also using an implicit motivation model that says employees who remain will motivated by the need to keep their jobs, rather than any deep personal commitment to the company’s goals and values.
The other alternative is to focus on employees as a competitive advantage, to create a high performance work organization, the Yin influence. Lawler (1996) described six principles required for building the “new logic” corporation that include the ideas of organization as a competitive advantage, involvement as the most effective source of control, all employees adding value, the importance of lateral practices, designing around products and customers, and the importance of effective leadership. This high performance work organization is a variation on the dominant theories of the human relations and human development stages. Lawler (1996, p. 21) credits McGregor’s description of Theory Y as “the radical beginning for a new logic of organizing.”
Examining the events in the new stage may provide some clues as to which theory will dominate. The immediate reaction to the terrorist attacks seemed to be that people acted more humanely toward one another. However as the economy struggled to recover from a recession and setback aggravated by the attacks, U.S. business once again showed the dangers of capitalism taken too far or democracy weakened too much
(Barber, 2002; Friedman, 200). For example, in 2002 Enron filed for bankruptcy amid allegations of accounting irregularities, employees were out of a job and a pension and stockholders were left with greatly diminished portfolios. The world questioned the superiority of the U.S. model of capitalism and business was once again cast in the role of the villain. In the past when business was seen as the negative force on society as we saw in the beginning of the human relations stage, the human development stage, and the information and knowledge revolution stage, Yin was the dominating force, with motivation theory focused on people. Thus we might expect the high performance work system to become the choice of managers.

334 RHEE & SIGLER
However, if we look at the pattern of shifts from focusing motivation on humankind and science, our model would predict a return to the stability of science. Schlesinger (1986) describes cycles of American history that alternate between experiment and destiny. That is, the
American culture seems to alternate between times of innovation and public purpose with times of individual-rights oriented conservatism and private interest. According to Schlesinger’s analysis, each cycle flows out of the conditions and contradictions of the last cycle. If we overlay this model on our stages in the evolution of motivation theory, we find that the future should bring a cycle of private interest and a return to the use of science in motivation practice. This prediction would be supported by the election of a republican president.
However, the changes of the 21 st century may be enough to require a paradigm shift that creates a motivation theory that is not simply a variation on theories past. Maybe there is no way to predict what the future will bring. Alvin Toffler, in his book Powershift (1990), describes the future as terra incognita-the uncharted landscape of tomorrow. It may be that the “…future will not be a continuation of the past. It will be a series of discontinuities.” (Gibson, 1997, p. 6). We may be on “the edge of chaos” a time of great turbulence when new life is born out of the decaying of the old (Gibson, 1997, p. 3).
DISCUSSION
Motivation theory in the 20 th century has evolved to meet the changing social, political, and economic environment. We have traced a brief description of seven stages in American history and identified the major and competing theories of motivation. Table 1 provides a summary of the stages. The theory of Yin and Yang helps us to understand how and why motivation theory has changed through the push and pull of humankind and science.
Table 2 shows the theories that focus on science and descend from
Scientific Management and the theories that focus on humankind and descend from the Human Relations Theory.
The development of motivational theories follows closely the principles or beliefs of Taoism which states that changes in the universe are brought on by the interaction between opposing forces called yin and yang. In our review of the twentieth motivational theories, yin has been

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 335 interpreted as human relationship and yang, as science. If we examine the development of the stages, it seems that the triumph of yin
(humanistic or social emphasis) is often followed by the resurrection of yang (scientific or technical emphasis), and the cycle repeats. This notion of balance and centeredness (yang is counterbalanced by yin when yang becomes too strong) is evidenced in the cycles of motivation
TABLE 1
Stages in the Evolution of Motivation Theory

336 RHEE & SIGLER
Stage 1:
Scientific
Management
(1900-30)
Stage 2:
Human
Relations
(1930-45)
Stage 3:
Social Ethic
(1945-60)
Industrial
Revolution
Protestant work ethic,
Adam Smith
Depression New Deal,
WW2
Expanding economy
Conservatism,
Cold War,
Korean War
Economic growth
Improving human condition
Social mobility
Scientific management
Human relations
Bounded rationality,
MBO
Stage 4:
Human
Prosperity and
Development
(1960-80) recession
JFK, Social activism,
Vietnam War
Supply side economics,
Deregulation
Change
Making money
McGregor,
Equity,
Expectancy
Goal setting,
MBO, TQM
Follett,
Gantt,
Barnard,
Gilbreth
Scientific management,
Maslow
Scientific management,
Human relations
Equity theory,
Expectancy theory
Needs theories
Science
Humankind
Science
(of
Humankind)
Humankind
Science Stage 5:
Comparative
Pragmatism
(1980-90)
Stage 6:
Information/
Knowledge
Revolution
(1990-2000)
Recovery and boom
Recovery and boom
Selfintegration, widening economic divide
Information and
Technology
Selfmanagement,
TQM,
Reengi-
Empowerment, Teams neering
Humankind
TABLE 2
Evolution of Scientific Management and Human Relations Theory
The Push of Science
Scientific Management
Bounded Rationality, MBO
Goal-Setting, QM
Contingent workforce
The Pull of Humankind
Human Relations, Hawthorne Studies
Theory X and Y, Maslow’s Hierarchy
Self-management, Empowerment
High performance work teams theories in the twentieth century. Another important concept in Taoism is the cyclical nature of life and production. In other words yin produces yang, and yang produces yin. They are inseparable and interdependent.
There is no one principle (yin or yang) that dominates the other permanently, but in only a temporary status, all subject to cyclical changes.

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 337
In this paper we have focused on the major motivation theories of each stage. Recently, given the growing size and importance of the white collar work force, major motivation theories have tended to focus on knowledge workers. However there are still employees in the United
States and in the world who are struggling to survive on minimum wage or poverty level wages in jobs that are very physical. It is not clear that our major theories of motivation apply to this segment of the workforce.
The economic divide between the haves and have-nots is only increasing with the emerging importance of technology. Now we can also see a digital divide between those who have access to electronic technology and those who do not.
Future research should examine the development of motivation theory in cultures outside of the United States. Just as McClelland found that need for achievement is associated with economic growth and prosperity (McClelland, 1961), it may be that the emphasis on science versus humankind is linked with the economic development of a culture.
Just as the industrial revolution in the United States created the environmental conditions right for scientific management, the industrial, social, and technological development in other cultures may help us to predict and explain which motivation theories will be adopted.
We should also try to understand and document the competing organization and motivation theories in the current stage of U.S. history.
Current and changing social, economic, and political forces should determine the approach to motivation that allows a company to survive and prosper. If we can understand the Yin and Yang of motivation theory, we might be in a position to help managers choose successful motivation theories in the current and future stages. McGregor would suggest that our evolution has taken us up the moral ladder as well so that future theories of motivation should incorporate a greater focus on humankind.
“A variety of anthropological research points quite definitely to the conclusion that evolution has been a process not only of competition and survival of the fittest but also one of collaboration, cooperation, and mutual support. As one ascends the evolutionary ladder, altruism, idealism, generosity, admiration, and behavior stemming from emotions, are gradually added to the more primitive emotions of hostility and acquisitiveness” (Heil et al., 2000, p. 73).

338 RHEE & SIGLER
Only the motivation theory of the future can prove him right or wrong.
REFERENCES
Abrahamson, E., & Fairchild, G. (1999). “Management Fashion:
Lifecycles, Triggers, and Collective Learning Processes.”
Administrative Science Quarterly, 44 : 708-740.
Adams, J. S. (1963). “Toward an Understanding of Inequity.” Journal of
Abnormal Psychology, 67 : 422-436.
Adas, M. (1989). Machines as the Measure of Men: Science,
Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance.
Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press.
Astley, W. G. (1985). “The Two Ecologies: Population and Community
Perspectives on Organizational Evolution.” Administrative Science
Quarterly, 30 : 224–241.
Barnard, C. (1938). The Functions of the Executive . Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Barnett, W. P., & Carroll, G. R. (1995). “Organizational Ecology.” In J.
Hagan & K. S. Cook (Eds.), Annual Review of Sociology (Vol. 21)
(pp. 217-236). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.
Baum, J., & Oliver, C. (1991). “Institutional Linkages and
Organizational Mortality.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 36 :
187–218.
Bell, D. (1973). The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in
Social Forecasting . New York: Basic Books.
Boyatzis, R. E., & Skelly, F. R. (1991). “The Impact of Changing Values on Organizational Life.” In D. A. Kolb, I. M. Rubin & J. S. Osland
(Eds.), Organizational behavior reader (5th ed., pp. 1-16).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bruderer, E., & Singh, J. V. (1996). “Organizational Evolution,
Learning, and Selection: A Genetic-Algorithm-Based Model.”
Academy of Management Journal, 39 (5): 1322–1349.
Chandler, A. D. (1956). Henry Varnum Poor: Business Editor, Analyst, and Reformer . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Chandler, A. D. (1990). Scale and Scope: The dynamics of Industrial

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 339
Capitalism . Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
Copley, F. B. (1923). Frederick W. Taylor: Father of Scientific
Management . New York: Harper & Row.
Deming, W. E. (1982). Quality, Productivity, and Competitive Position .
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Deming, W. E. (1986). Out of the Crisis . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts
Institute of Technology Center for Advanced Engineering Study.
Deutschman, A. (1990, August 27). “What 25-Year-Olds Want.”
Fortune, 122 : 42.
DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983, April). “The Iron Cage
Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in
Organizational Fields.” American Sociological Review, 48 : 147–160.
Drucker, P. F. (1954). The Practice of Management . New York: Harper
& Row.
Dubin, R. (1978). Theory Building . New York: The Free Press.
Evans, J. R., & Lindsay, W. M. (2002). Management and Control of
Quality . Cincinnati, OH: South-Western Publishing.
Farnham, A. (1996). “Casting Off: Three Who Did It Right.” Fortune,
133 : 60.
Follett, M. P. (1918). The New State: Group Organization the Solution for Popular Government . London: Longmans, Gree and Co.
Follett, M. P. (1926). “The Illusion of Final Authority.” Bulletin of the
Taylor Society, 1 (5): 243.
Follett, M. P. (1937). “The Process of Control. In L. Gulick & L. Urwick
(Eds.), Papers on the Science of Administration (p. 161). New York:
Columbia University.
Freeman, J., & Hannan, M. (1983). “Niche Width and the Dynamics of
Organizational Populations.” American Journal of Sociology,
88 : 1116–1145.
Freire, P. (1921). Pedagogy of the Oppressed . New York: Herder and
Herder.
Gantt, H. L. (1919). Organizing for Work . New York: Harcourt Brace

340 RHEE & SIGLER
Jovanovich.
Gibson, R. (1997). “Rethinking Business.” In R. Gibson (Ed.), In
Rethinking the Future . London: Nicholas Breasley Publishing.
Gilbreth, L. M. (1914). The Psychology of Management . New York:
Sturgis and Walton Co.
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence . New York:
Bantam Books.
Gordon, R. A., & Howell, J. E. (1959). Higher Education for Business .
New York: Columbia University Press.
Gould, S. J. (2002). The Structure of Evolutionary Theory . Cambridge,
MA: Belknap Press.
Hammer, M., & Champy, J. (1993). Reengineering the Corporation .
New York: Harper Business.
Hannan, M., & Freeman, J. (1977). “The Population Ecology of
Organizations.” American Journal of Sociology, 82 : 929–964.
Heil, G., Bennis, W., & Stephens, D. C. (2000). Douglas McGregor,
Revisited: Managing the Human Side of Enterprise . New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959). The Motivation to Work . New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
House, R. J. (1971). “A 1976 Theory of Path-Goal Leadership.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 16 : 321-338.
House, R. J. (1977). “A Theory of Charismatic Leadership.” In J. G.
Hunt & L. C. Larson (Eds.), Leadership: The Cutting Edge (pp. 189-
207). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
Juran, J. M. (1989). Juran on Leadership for Quality . New York: The
Free Press.
Katzenbach, J. R., & Smith, D. K. (1993). The Wisdom of Teams:
Creating High-Performance Organization . New York: Harper
Business Book.
Kerr, S. (1975). “On the Folly of Rewarding A, While Hoping for B.”
Academy of Management Journal, 18 : 769-783.
Kotter, J. P. (1999). John P. Kotter on What Leaders Really Do . Boston,

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 341
MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1995). The Leadership Challenge: How to Keep Getting Extraordinary Things Done in Organizations . San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions . Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Lao, T. (1961). Tao Teh Ching.
(J. C. H. Wu, Trans.). New York: St.
John’s University Press.
Larson, C. E., & LaFasto, F. M. (1989). Teamwork: What Must Go
Right/What Can Go Wrong . Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Lawler, E. E. (1996). From the Ground up: Six Principles for Building the New Logical Corporation . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A Theory of Goal Setting and
Task Performance . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Locke, E. A., Smith, K. G., Erez, M., Chah, D.-O., & Schaffer, A.
(1994). “The Effects of Intra-Individual Goal Conflict and
Performance.” Journal of Management, 20 (1): 67-92.
Marx, Karl (1963). Early Writings . New York: McGraw-Hill.
Maslow, A. H. (1943). “A Theory of Human Motivation.” Psychological
Review, 50 : 370-396.
Maslow, A. H. (1962). Toward a Psychology of Being . New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.
“MBAs and Success” (1986, November 24). Fortune, 114 : 29-39.
McClelland, D. C. (1961). The Achieving Society . Princeton, NJ: D. Van
Nostrand.
McClelland, D. C. (1965). “Achievement Motivation Can Be
Developed.” Harvard Business Review, 40 : 99-112.
McGregor, D. (1960). The Human Side of Enterprise . New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Micklethwait, J., & Wooldridge, A. (1996). The Witch Doctors: Making
Sense of the Management Gurus . New York: Times Books.

342 RHEE & SIGLER
Miner, A. S., Amburgey, T., & Stearns, T. (1990). “Interorganizational
Linkages and Population Dynamics: Buffering and Transformational Shields.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 35, 689–713.
Morel, B., & Ramanujam, R. (1999). “Through the Looking Glass of
Complexity: The Dynamics of Organizations as Adaptive and
Evolving Systems.” Organization Science, 10 (3): 278–293.
Newport, J. P. (1989, April 24). “A New Era of Rapid Rise and Ruin.”
Fortune, 119 : 77.
Owen, R. (1977). The Life of Robert Owen . Fairfield, NJ: A.M. Kelley
Publishers.
Pasmore, W. A. (1988). Designing Effective Organizations: The
Sociotechnical Systems Perspective . New York: John Wiley and
Sons.
Pfeffer, J. (1998). The Human Equation: Building Profits by Putting
People First . Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Pinder, C. C. (1998). Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior .
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sakaiya, T. (1991). The Knowledge-Value Revolution or a History of the
Future . New York: Kodansha International.
Schlender, B. R. (1992, January 27). “The Values We Will Need.”
Fortune, 125 : 75.
Senge, P. M. (1990). The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the
Learning Organization . New York: Doubleday.
Silver, B. L. (1998). The Ascent of Science . New York: Oxford
University Press.
Simon, H. (1957). Administrative Behavior (2nd ed.). New York:
Macmillan.
Simpson, J. A. (Ed.). (1989). The Oxford English Dictionary (2 nd ed.).
New York: Oxford University Press.
Sinclair, U. (1988). Jungle . Memphis, TN: St Lukes Press.
Smith, A. (2000). The Wealth of Nations . New York: Random House.
Stata, R. (1989, Spring). “Organizational Learning--The Key to
Management Innovation.” Sloan Management Review : 63-64.

SCIENCE VERSUS HUMANKIND: THE YIN AND YANG OF MOTIVATION
THEORY 343
Staw, B., & Epstein, L. (2000). “What Bandwagons Bring: Effects of
Popular Management Techniques on Corporate Performance,
Reputation, and CEO Pay.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 45
(3): 523–556.
Stewart, T. A. (1997). Intellectual Capital . New York: Doubleday.
Taylor, F. W. (1911). The Principles of Scientific Management . New
York: Harper & Row.
Thurow, L. (1997). Changing the Nature of Capitalism. In R. Gibson
(Ed.), In Rethinking the Future . London: Nicholas Breasley
Publishing.
Toffler, A. (1990). Powershift: Knowledge, Wealth, and Violence at the
Edge of the 21 st Century. New York: Bantam Books.
Ure, A. (1967). The Philosophy of Manufactures: Or an Exposition of the
Scientific, Moral and Commercial Economy of the Factory System of
Great Britain . New York: Augustus M. Kelley.
Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and Motivation . New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
Weber, M. (1958). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism .
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Whyte, W. H. (1956). The Organization Man . New York: Simon &
Schuster.
Wren, D. A. (1994). The Evolution of Management Thought . New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.