Theological Methods and Hermeneutics
Christian Faith- and The Social Sciences
Sociological Hermeneutics: Social Context of The New Testament
Heritage and Hermeneutics; "Whatever you have as a heritage from your fathers—you must
earn it if you would possess it." (Goethe, Faust, 682-3).
"Because the biblical interpreter in dealing with texts must deal with language, and because
language is a social product, methods must be found which can deal with that social dimension
of the biblical texts." (Bruce J. Malina, "The Social Sciences and Biblical Interpretation,"
Interpretation 36 1982)
Communicating, Culture and Language
"Biblical interpretation, as the investigation of linguistic communications from the past, requires
at least two sets of tools: one set of a linguistic sort that can deal with texts as texts, and not as
words or sentences or supersentences, and another set of a historical sort that can deal with the
past in some cross-cultural way. The value of the social sciences for, biblical interpretation is
that they can provide some of the important tools for both the linguistic and the historical
dimensions of biblical scholarship." (Malina, ibid.)
Can There Be A Christian Sociological Theory?
The classical positivistic model of science assumed at least three things: (1) objectivity, (2)
neutrality, and (3) universality. Though social sciences still operate within the scope of this
model it has been technically abandoned for over a quarter of a century in the physical sciences.
Now to the immediate issue—how, if at all, can we have an hermeneutical model for interpreting
the past, especially texts? To interpret text from the past, the interpreter has to imagine how
meanings functioned, how they operated, how they related to each other in terms of persons,
things, and events of the past that embodied meanings. Paradigms of such operations are Social
Science Models. The three main types of social science models are called (1) The StructuralFunctionalist Model; (2) The Conflict Model; and (3) The Symbolic Model. See: the survey of
J.H. Turner, The Structure of Sociological Theory, revised edition (Homewood, IL: Dorsey
Press, 1978); and P. Burke, Sociology and History (London: Allen and Unwin, 1980). For
Structural Functionalist approaches see N. Gottwald, The Tribes of Yahweh (Orbis Books,
1979). For the Conflict Model see J. G. Gager, Kingdom and Community. The Social World of
Early Christianity (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1975). For the Symbolic Model see Gillain
Felley-Harnik, The Lord's Table: Eucharist and Passover in Early Christianity (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981); and B.J. Malina, The New Testament: Insights From
Cultural Anthropology (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1981) 122-51. See also Gerd Theissen’s use
of Freudian Models in Sociology of Early Palestinian Christianity (Phil; Fortress Press, 1978)
99-110; and the lethal criticism of his thesis by D. E. Stannard, Shrinking History and The
Failures of Psychohistoricity (Oxford, 1980).
In addition, three applications of general linguistics to the study of biblical texts are: Language as
System entails: (1) Language as Art (aesthetic linguistics); (2) Language as Knowledge (Psycholinguistics); and (3) Language as Behavior (Sociolinguistics). See: Michael A.K. Halliday,
Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning (Baltimore,
University Park Press, 1978); A.J. Sanford and S.C. Garrod, Understanding Written Language:
Exploration of Comprehension Beyond the Sentence (NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1981); George
Miller and Philip Johnson-Laird, Language and Perception (Cambridge, Belknap Press, 1976);
Robert de Beaurgrande, Text, Discourse and Process; Toward a Multidisciplinary Science of
Texts (Norwood. NJ: Ablex Pub. Co., 19801; E. M. Rogers/F.F. Shoemaker, Communication of
Innovations; A Cross Cultural Approach. Free Press, 2nd ed., 1971).
In order to effectively respond to this question there must be a clear view of the nature of the
scientific enterprise and its relationship to a Christian World/Life View. See my following
syllabi: Christian Faith and the Physical Sciences; Christian Faith and the Social Sciences;
Models of Scientific Knowledge Claims; and newsletter of Christian Sociological Society;
Zygon: Evangelical Scientific Affiliation.
Biblical Hermeneutics and The Social Sciences
There are at least three widely held criticisms leveled against the use of the social science
models in biblical interpretation: (1) Some see the use of the social sciences as reductionistic,
thus useless; (2) Some see the social sciences as potentially useful, but practically impossible to
utilize; and (3) Some hold that the social sciences are too deterministic to explain God's creative
revelatory immanence in history, society and individual lives. Each of these reveal serious
misunderstanding of the nature of the scientific enterprise, especially as worked out in the social
sciences (see H.H. Penner and E.A. Yonan, “s A Science of Religion Possible?” Journal of
Religion 52 107-33 (1972): esp. 118-118; Journal of Scientific Study of Religion; and C. Kraft,
Christianity And Culture (Orbis books, 1978).
A Christian world/life view holds that neither the physical nor sciences are autonomous, so there
can be no necessary conflict between the Christian faith and the data provided by the social
sciences/physical sciences.
The New Testament World: Social Context of Early Christianity
Hermeneutics is always concerned with understanding and meaning. In order to understand the
Bible, specifically for our present purpose, the New Testament, the sociological horizon or
perspective is essential for recovering "meaning units" beyond/but including words, phrases,
sentences, literary genre, and pericopes (cf. Discourse Analysis/Narrative/Story Telling, etc.).
Transcending the Troubled Relationship Between Theology and Sociology
From the period of The Reformation until the 1940’s/1950’s the Protestant principle of Sola
Scripture was more than the devil's advocate regarding hermeneutical horizons beyond the
biblical text itself. If the Bible is self-explanatory, then no hermeneutical tool beyond the
grammatico-historico method should be allowed into the search for the meaning of the Biblical
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text. (See the brilliant work of Henning Graf Reaentlow, The Authority of The Bible and the
Rise of the Modern World (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, E.T. 1985; H.J. Kraus, Geschichte der
historisch-kritischen Erforschung des Alten Testaments (1982), and W. Kummel’s NT criticism.)
Ultimately, we must note how are we to relate 'biblical authority' to the social sciences as a
hermeneutical resource? Peter Berger affirms that sociology is a disturbing discipline in that it
“is not conducive to an onward and upward outlook, but will rather lead to one degree or another
of disenchantment with regard to the interpretations of social reality given in Sunday Schools
…” (Invitation to Sociology, 1966, p. 172)
The central aim of sociology is to attempt to understand human behavior, But it is not the
concern of sociology to judge whether any particular belief/behavior system is right or wrong,
true or false. Rather, it is a concern of sociology to describe "social origin" and 'social
consequences" of a given belief/behavior system. Some might still assume that scientific
sociology is 'wertfrein,' i.e. 'value-free' and thus objective in its study of religion. This myth has
gone the way of all flesh as the historiography of social theories reveals (e.g. The Book of Acts
affirms that the growth of the early Church is explained by the Holy Spirit's presence and power.
To note that this growth, took place in a particular social/political structure does not vitiate the
Lukan data in Acts). The disciplines of theology and sociology need to be open to each other's
findings in a discerning way. The Church growth details in Acts do not claim to provide
exhaustive explanation of the “social world” of early Christianity, but only that God was at work
within the time-space dimensions of biblical Palestine. The biblical world-view can interface
both the biblical and sociological data.
Sociology and the Origins of The Jesus Movement
Christianity has its roots in Galilee. The early disciples were Galileans (only Judas was an
exception). Yet the Jesus Movement made little long term impact in this area [see J. Danielou,
Jewish Christianity for radically disparate pictures between NT data on Jewish Christianity and
that of the second and third centuries A.D.; compare Howard Kee's Community of The New
Age, 1977 and J.G. Gager's Kingdom and Community, 1975—the social theory of each
structures their explanatory outcomes. Kee's work emphasizes the influence of apocalyptic
groups who emphasize that they are the elect and that there is to be an imminent vindication of
their beliefs. (e.g. Mark 6.7-13 compared with itinerant cynic-Stoic philosophers who were
active in the Hellenistic period). Gager's theory emphasizes that the Jesus Movement was a
millenarian movement (cf. Gager's imagination runs wild in his analysis of the Book of
Revelation. He holds that the early Jesus Movement modified its views concerning a coming
kingdom of God to a belief in the Kingdom as symbolic myth). Gager's work is an example of
radical sociological reductionism. (Compare Gager with E.A. Judge who concludes that the early
Christians are more suitably seen as a scholastic community rather than a millenarian movement
(Journal of Religious History 1 (1960/61): 4-15; 125-137)].
Growth of The Jesus Movement
A third interpretation of the Jesus Movement is presented by Gerd Theissen in his The First
Followers of Jesus, 1978; compare with J. Jeremias, Jerusalem in The Time of Jesus, 1967. This
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view maintains that earliest Christianity was a renewal movement within Judaism. Theissen also
analyzes the social organization and structure of the Jesus Movement. Central to the movement
was Jesus and that the crucial understanding of Jesus was found in the concept of him as the Son
of Man (see my Christ: Incarnational Paradigm; and Seyoon Kim, Son of Man as Son of God
(Eerdmans, 1985).
There are at least two tiers of disciples—(1) Followers - rural background - farmers and
fisherman. (2) Sympathizers who were rooted in local situations. (cf. Social stratification, egs:
the poor, Pharisees, farmers, fishermen, tax collectors, etc. Artisans; Jews, Gentiles, older
aristocratic families as captured in the High Priests).
There are several important factors which contribute to the growth of the early Church: (1)
Socio-economic factors; First century Palestine was undergoing rapid social upheaval (e.g. the
famine of 25 A.D., epidemic of 29 A.D., famine of 47 A.D). These factors coupled with the
commercial activity of the Pax Romana had led to social unrest (see Luke 19.11-27). (2) Socioecological factors. Most of the early support in the Jesus derives from Galilee (Compare N.T.
and Didache for tension between conservatism and radical cultural revolt). The data does not
support the thesis that there was a radical tension between Jesus' teaching and the practice of the
early Church. (3) Sociopolitical Factors: Jesus |came preaching "Repent, for the Kingdom of God
is at hand" and that "a Kingdom divided against itself cannot stand" (Mk. 3.24f; Israel, Kingdom.
Church, world, Roman State). (4) Socio-Cultural Factors: Revolt against the social norms
threatened the Jewish state (cf. 70 A.D.; Matt. 5-7; 9.36; Gal. 4.4). Jesus had affirmed that with
His coming something greater than the torah, temple, and Moses had arrived. These three factors
were the pillars of conservative Judaism. Jesus and His disciples often expressed intense
confrontation with the Jerusalem power structure/ brokers. After all the city of David housed the
Temple, the Priesthood, and the scripture specialists. The trial, crucifixion, and resurrection of
Jesus took place in Jerusalem. Yet, the Church came into existence (Acts 1-2) in Jerusalem on
the day of Pentecost (see M. Hengel, Acts and The Historicity of Earliest Christianity, 1979;
A.N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the NT, 1963; and Ramsay's works).
Before the day of Pentecost the frightened disciples (even after resurrection) would have been
described as an introversionist sect (Acts 1.14; 2.1). Yet the Church continued to grow after.
Institutionalization of Authority
As the Church grew so did its organization (see M. Weber, Theory of Social and Economic
Organization (Free Press, 1964, esp. III). Weber distinguishes three types of authority
(domination): (1) Charismatic type (Jesus, Acts 6.1-6); (2) Traditional authority (e.g. Patriarchal
domination, compare disciples with Jesus and power structure!); (3) Rule of law or legalistic
structure (Acts 15; 20; Gal; and Rom; II Cor 10-13; I/II Tim; Titus; B. Holmberg, Paul and
Power. 1978).
Sociological Causes of Hindrances
Data reveals that the Jewish sects were conservative in nature. The Church was perceived as a
challenge to every social parameter of Judaism (J. Jeremias, Jerusalem in The Time of Jesus,
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1969; Frend, Persecutions). The Book of Acts reveals both cognitive and cultural dissonance
between Jesus’ early disciples and both Jews and Greeks. Witnessing, the call to repentance and
the constant call to conversion, would tend to initially exacerbate this dissonance (see Journal of
Christian Studies, 1983, my Conversion and Cross-Culture Communication; see also L.
Festinger, H. Riecken, and S. Schachter, When Prophecy Fails (Harper & Row, 1956).
The fact that the Church preached that "Jesus saves" cannot account for radical resistance to
Church growth, but that she preached that “Jesus only saves” does. Cross-cultural evangelism
sent the Church on its Gentile trajectory (esp. Acts 13-28 and 10,11). Since no one
communicates in a vacuum. Under Augustus Caesar the Roman empire began to flourish. The
new era set the tone for the early years of Christian missionary expansion. Augustine died in 14
A.D. and was succeeded by Tiberius who ruled during the period of Jesus' life. The religious
environment of Christianity was the radical outbreak of new religions. Emperor worship was
already a threat to the gospel and the Church's faithfulness (cf. Gnosticism, mystery religions,
neo-Platonism, etc.).
Christ and Culture
As one reads Romans, Galatians, Colossians, Ephesians, Revelation, etc., one notes the increased
tension between the Church and its culture (compare Niebuhr and Kraft). The Christian was to
receive a new social status (II Cor 5.17; Rom 6. 15-23; Gal 5.13; Rom 8.1-17; Col 3.24). This
“new creation” was to be expressed in all cultures, and not only Jewish/Palestine and the urban
world of Rome (I Cor 5-6; Eph 4.28f; 4.1 - 5.2; 5. 21 - 6.4; Col. 3.18-21; Rom. 13.1-7; I Tim. 2.
1-3; Gal. 6.1-6).
New Inter-Relationships: Roman Institutions and Christian Fellowship
There can be no culture without some widely held consensus on the part of the citizens. In the
NT era there were three basic social institutions: (1) City-Community (Politeia); (2) HouseholdCommunity (oikonomia).; and (3) Voluntary Associations (koinonia). Each of these parameters
dealt with man's need to belong (see R. Banks, Paul's Idea of Community). The politeia is the
tale of two cities—God's and Man's. Public service was donated via a sense of competition (Lk.
12.25; Acts 12.1-23; 14.11-18; 19.23-41; 28.1-6). Widespread dissatisfaction in the system of
government is reflected in the NT. Christians were citizens of two worlds (note Paul's appeal to
his Roman citizenship: Eph. 2.12-3,19; Heb. 11.13; I Pet. 1.1,17; 2.11 - aliens, foreigners, far off,
strangers). The household was a tightly knit unit of interpersonal relationships. (Rom. 16.23; I
Cor. 5.4; 14-23; I Thess. 5.27; Heb. 10.25; 13.24; Compare with Justin's First Apology where he
refers to several house-based meetings in Rome. cf. Filson's suggestions regarding strife at
Corinth).
In most cultures citizens are born into the social structures, they are not often members of
voluntary associations. Note that after Hegel's Social Theory and Liberal Naturalistic Humanism
of Voltaire and Rousseau's social contract—western man was set on a trajectory of social
functionalism (see my Critique of Functionalism , and Contextualizatipn in Context).
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The Corinthian Church was the center of such a problem (I Cor. 8; 7-12; Romans 14; Acts 26: 23). Christianity was perceived rather positively, until it seemed to threaten the peace of the
Empire. Pliny letter to Trajan reveals that he was at a loss to know what to do with Christians.
They maintained, however, that the amount of their fault and error had been this, that it was their
habit on a fixed day to assemble before daylight and recite by turns a form of words to Christ as
a god; and that they bound themselves with an oath, not for any crime, but not to commit theft or
robbery or adultery, not to break their word, and not to deny a deposit when demanded. After this
was done, their custom was to depart, and to meet again to take food, but ordinary and harmless
food; and even this (they said) they had given up doing after the issue of my edict, by which in
accordance with your commands I had forbidden the existence of clubs. (Derek Tidball, The
Social Context of the NT (Zondervan Corp, 1984, p. 88).
As the Church grew, different types of persons became members (I Cor. 1.26-28; Acts 4.37;
10.1; 17.9,12; 19.31; 16.11-40; 16.37; 22.25; Phil. 4.11-13; Eph. 5.5-8; Col. 3.22-25; II Thess.
3.10-11; Rom. 16).
How are Christians to relate to the world (Gal. 5.16-22; Eph. 5.3-20; 5.21 - 6.9; Col 3.5-17; 3.18
- 4.2; I Pet. 2.Iff; 2.18 - 3.7)? See: J.L. Houlden, Ethics and The NT, 1973; Richard
Longenecker, NT Social Ethics for Today, 1984; J.T. Sanders, Ethics in NT. 1975; and James
Strauss, Biblical/Theological Ethics.
Wilson distinguishes seven different typologies of the Church relating to the world: (1)
Conversionist - total transformation; (2) Revolutionists - total destruction; Marx's 'creative
destruction'; (3) Introversionist - either insulated or isolated; (4) Manipulationist - seeing things
from a more positive perspective; (5) Thouma-turgical response - modify world by miracle; (6)
Reformist - amend and improve; and (7) Utopianist - seeks to usher in -via humanistic/
naturalistic science and technology the "new heaven and new earth" (See K. Wilson, Magic and
The Millennium, 1973, pp. 31-69; Compare Niebuhr and Kraft on Christ and Culture. I Tim.
4.4,5; Rom. 13.11-14; Rom. 1-2; Rom. 13.1-7; I Tim. 2.1-2; Jude; Rev. 4-19; II Pet. 3.11; I Cor
6.3-6; Jas. 5.1-6; 5.7-8; Heb. 13.14-16; II Cor. 5.1.7; Isa 60-66; Rev. 21).
Three fundamental issues which presented a challenge to the Church in the world and still does
are: (1) The State: see Acts 4.19; Rom. 13.1-9; Acts 25.13-27; I Peter 2.13; 3.13; I Tim. 2.1-2; II
Tim. 4.8,18; Jn. 19.11; Matt. 22.21; Rev. 13. 1-4). (2) Slavery: see W. Westermann, The Slave
Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity, 1955, (vol. 40); I Cor. 7.20-24; Eph. 6.5-9; Col. 3.2225; I Pet. 2.18-20; Col. 4.1. Freedom in Christ destroyed the power of the institutionalized evil
of slavery long before the actual collapse of slavery in the empire. (3) Wealth; Stewards of
Creation: Jas. 5.1-6; 2.1-7; I Tim. 6.17-19; I Tim. 6.6-10; I Cor. 1.; Phil 3.20; Rev. 2.9; 3.17-18;
II Cor. 8-9. See esp. D. Mealand, Poverty and Expectation in The Gospels, 1980; and M.
Hengel, Property and Riches in the Early Church, 1973. Pauline discussion of stewardship (esp.
II Cor 8-9} was grounded in grace, not an economic theory.
Institutionalization
The process of Institutionalization is always inseparably related to God incarnate in cultural
context. From Weber's classic work to D. Moberg's crucial study (The Church As A Social
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Institution, reprinted by Baker) the challenge of social process of institutionalization has been a
major preoccupation of sociological studies of religion. How can a final, authoritative word from
God be transmitted (or even received in the first place) through culturally contingent structures?
Total freedom from structures is not even possible, let alone desirable.
Three of the more important issues are: (1) Emergence of Careerism versus original intention of
the movement (formal/material factors); (2) Growth of Bureaucracy protecting vested interests
rather than achieving; (3) Radical shift in leadership models—from vital and progressive to timid
and lethargic (see D.O. Moberg, The Church as a Social Institution, Baker, 118-124; T.F. O’Dea,
“Five Dilemmas in the Institutionalization of Religion,” Sociology and the Study of Religion,
1970, pp. 241-54; M. Weber, The Sociology of Religion. 1965 (1922); The Theory of Social and
Economic Organization, 1964 (1947); and E. Troeltsch, The Social Teaching of the Christian
Church (E.T.) 1931 (1911).
Yet, we must affirm that "Confronted with Jesus, their lives were turned upside down; they
stepped out of the normal socially accepted paths of life and a powerful new community, called
the Christian Church, was founded." (D. Tidball, The Social Context of The New Testament,
1984, p. 142).
One of the greatest challenges to the contemporary Church is the implication of the social
sciences for hermeneutics.
Hermeneutics and Sociology Bibliography
Banks, Robert. Paul's Idea of Community (Eerdmans, 1981).
Berger, Peter. Facing Up to Modernity (Penguin, 1979).
________. A Rumor of Angels (Penguin, 19701.
________. The Social Reality of Religion (Penguin, 1973).
Berger, Peter, and H. Kellner. The Homeless Mind (Penguin, 1974).
Case, Shirley, J. The Social Origins of Christianity (University of Chicago Press, 1923).
Dunn, J.D.G. Unity and Diversity in The New Testament (1977) esp. pp. 351-59.
Elliott, J. A Home For the Homeless, A Sociology Exegesis of I Peter (SCM, 1981).
France, R.T. Themelios (5, 1979): 30ff. Critical review of Dunn's Unity and Diversity, which
argues that orthodoxy was not a late invention (contra Baur’s Orthodoxy and Heresy,
1974).
Gager, John G. Kingdom and Community (Prentice-Hall, 1975) - good account of class system,
pp. 96-106.
Gill, Robin. The Social Context of Theology (Mowbrays, 1975).
Green, M. Evangelism in The Early Church (Eerdmans, 1970).
Hengel, M. Property and Riches in The Early Church (Fortress, 1973).
Hill, Clifford. The Sociology of The New Testament (unpublished PhD thesis Nottingham,
1972).
Hill, Michael. A Sociology of Religion (Heinemann, 1973).
Jeremias, Joachim. Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus (SCM, 1969).
Judge, E.A. Social Pattern of Christian Groups in the First Century (Tyndale, 1960).
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Judge, E.A. “The Early Christians As a Scholastic Community,” Journal of Religious History
(1960-61): 4-15; 125-137.
Lohse, Eduard. The New Testament Environment (SCM, 1974).
Malherbe, A.J. Social Aspects of Early Christianity (Lousiana State University Press, 1977).
Malina, Bruce J. "The Social Sciences and Biblical Interpretation," Interpretation xxxvi (1982).
Mealand, David. Poverty and Expectation in The Gospels (S.P.C.K., 1980).
Moberg, D.O. The Church As A Social Institution (Prentice-Hall, 1962).
O’Dea, T.F. Sociology and the Study of Religion (Basic Books, 1970).
Robertson, R. The Sociological Interpretation of Religion (Blackwell, 1970).
Rostovtzeff, M. The Social and Economic History of The Roman Empire (Oxford, 2nd ed.
1952).
Smith, Jonathan Z. "The Social Description of Early Christianity," Religious Studies Review
(1975):19ff.
Stevenson, Eileen. "Some Insights from the Sociology of Religion into the Origin and
Development of The Early Christian Church.," Expository Times (1979):300-305.
Talmon, Yonina. "The Pursuit of the Millennium: The Relation between Religious and Social
Change." Archives Europeannes de Sociologie, 111, 1 (1962).
Theissen, Gerd. Social Setting of Pauline Christianity (T & T Clark, 1982).
Thiselton, A.C. "Realised Eschatology at Corinth" New Testament Studies 24 (1978): 510-526.
Tidball, Derek J. "Perspectives on Community Living." Vox Evangelica XI (1979): 65-80.
Towler, R. Homo Religiosus (Constable, 1974).
Troeltsch, E. The Social Teachings of The Christian Church (Allen & Unwin, 1931, vols. I/II).
Walter, J.A. "Sociology and Christianity, Some Conflicts and Their Resolutions" The Christian
Graduate, June 1977.
Weber, Max. Protestant Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism (Unwin University Press, 1930).
Westermann, William. The Slave Systems of Greek/Roman Antiquity (American Philosophical
Society, 1955, vol. 40).
Wilson, Bryan. Magic and the Millennium (Heinemann, 1973). (Full typology of responses to
the world as developed by Wilson, pp. 19-30.)
________. Patterns of Sectarianism (1967). Chp 1 - An Analysis of 'Sect' Development.
Zaretsky, I.I. and M. P. Leone, (eds.) Religious Movements in Contemporary America
(Princeton University Press, 1974).
James D. Strauss
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