© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
bridgetimonikebe@yahoo.com
Ref P223
Title
Feeding patterns of pregnant women in Delta state: Implications for
nutrition education.
Abstract
The study investigated the feeding patterns of pregnant women in Delta State,
Nigeria. The most frequently eaten foods are plantain, fresh fish, milk, meat, beans,
and rice. Light foods were preferred. They had the problem of lack of appetite, and
vomiting. Some recommendations were made.
Country
NIGERIA
Author Details
AUTHOR
Title of author
DR.
Surname
IMONIKEBE
First Name
Bridget
Name of Institution
Delta State University, Abraka.
Address of Institution
Delta State University, Abraka, NIGERIA
E-mail address of author
bridgetimonikebe@yahoo.com
Author biography
Dr Bridget Uyoyou Imonikebe is a senior lecturer in the Delta State University,
Abraka, Nigeria. She had a Bachelor’s degree in Home Economics Education,
Maters and Doctorate degree in Human Nutrition from the University of Nigeria,
Nsukka. Dr Imonikebe had published research papers in reputable national and
international journals.
Category
- Sustainable Development
Theme
-UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005-2014 themesImprove maternal health
Type of Contribution
-Research paper
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© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
FEEDING PATTERNS OF PREGNANT WOMEN IN DELTA
STATE; IMPLICATIONS FOR NUTRITION EDUCATION
BY
DR. BRIDGET UYOYOU IMONIKEBE
HOME ECONOMICS UNIT
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY ABRAKA, NIGERIA
TEL: +2348035027577, +2348027899514
E-mail: bridgetimonikebe@yahoo.com
Abstract
The study aimed at investigating the feeding patterns of pregnant women in Delta State.
The population consisted of married women from various occupational groups in Delta
State. A sample of 500 mothers was randomly selected. The instrument used for data
collection was a questionnaire. Percentages, mean, standard deviation were used for the
data analysis. T-test was used for testing the null hypothesis. Findings indicated that the
food eaten most by the pregnant women in the state are plantain, fresh fish, milk, meat
and beans, rice. Food preferred most by the women during pregnancy are food prepared
by other family members, and light food. Some women take these peculiar items e.g.
bitter kola, biscuit, chewing gum, chalky substance/clay to prevent sleep. Others just like
the items. Those foods forbidden are snake and iguana meat. The most common problems
experienced by the women are lack of appetite and energy. Vomiting discourage others
from eating well. It was recommended among others that the women should be given
adequate Nutrition Education.
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© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
bridgetimonikebe@yahoo.com
Introduction
Malnutrition is common in Nigeria. Ene-Obong (2000) reported that hunger and
malnutrition have become the most important public health problems all over the world
despite the existence of both the knowledge and resources needed for their resolution.
She stressed that the toll of malnutrition is more on women and children especially in
developing countries of the world. It was pointed out that nutritional problems affect
women at different stages of life cycle from infancy and childhood to adolescence and the
reproductive years.
The United Nations estimated that most of the 8.41 million chronically hungry people in
developing countries are women and children and that this infringes on their fundamental
human rights (Robinson, 1999). It was found that female malnutrition seems to be
greatest in West Africa.
McGuire and Popkin (1998) found that the food consumption studies during pregnancy
and lactation in sub-Saharan African countries show that nutrient intakes are low in the
range of 1400 – 2000kcal of energy 25 – 50kg protein while vitamins and minerals intake
are extremely low.
Enugu (1998) found that the calorie intake of pregnant and lactating women was found to
be lower than their non-pregnant, non-lactating counterparts. Enugu, found that nonpregnant and lactating women met 104% of the recommended intake of protein while the
pregnant and lactating women met 56% and 88% respectively.
Ene-Obong (2000) concluded that the elimination of hunger and malnutrition has become
one of the daunting challenges for the 21st century. The effects of malnutrition on
families especially the pregnant women are adverse. This has detrimental effects on the
fetus. An unborn child (foetus) relies completely upon the mother to supply the food
needs, for growth and development. The mother does not need to eat for two in terms of
eating twice her normal ration (McGrath 1987). An expectant mother needs some extra
food rich in nutrients both for herself and the foetus. McGrath recommended the
followings for pregnant women:- A good intake of protein food for rapid growth and
development of the foetus. Important sources of protein are fish, milk, meat, nuts and
legumes, calcium and phosphorus for the formation of strong bones and teeth, Vitamin D
(cholecalciferol) the calcifying vitamin is also recommended. The rich sources are oily
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fish, margarine; vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) for protection against infection. It helps in the
© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
absorption of iron. Rich sources are fruits and vegetables. Iron is very essential during
pregnancy. It is needed for the production of red blood cells. Iron is stored in the foetus’
liver that can be used by the body after delivery. Rich sources of iron the mother needs
are liver, kidney egg, yolk, leafy and vegetables. Foods containing the above-mentioned
nutrients and others need to be taken by pregnant women.
Atimo (2000) pointed out that good nutrition depends on the access to health services,
and sanitation on the status and situation of women, enabling them to make decisions in
favour of the care of their young children and on food security in the household.
The nutrition of the mother during pregnancy is of paramount importance. Whatever, the
mother feeds on affects the foetus either positively or negatively. The foetus depends
completely on the mother for his growth, development and existence. It is therefore
necessary to look into the type of foods mothers eat during pregnancy. This study
investigated into the feeding patterns of women during pregnancy with respect to Delta
State.
Purpose of The Study: The study aimed at identifying the feeding pattern of pregnant
women in Delta State and the problems they have with feeding.
Objectives of the Study
1.
To identify the foods eaten by the women during pregnancy in Delta State.
2.
To identify the foods preferred by the women during pregnancy.
3.
To identify the foods that are avoided by the women during pregnancy.
4.
To find out the reasons why such foods are avoided.
5.
To find out the problems, which the women usually encounter in relation to
feeding during pregnancy.
6.
To determine the level of like and dislike of certain foods.
Hypothesis
HO1: There will be no significant differences between the mean responses of the low and
high-income mothers on their level of like/dislike of certain foods at 498 degrees of
freedom at 0.05 level of significance.
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The study will highlight the feeding patterns of the pregnant women in Delta State. It will
© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
also show the problems that the women encounter during pregnancy. Nutritionists and
nurses can use the findings as basis for counseling women on how to improve their
nutritional status and suggest ways of solving their nutritional problems. The study will
be useful to anyone who will like to research on a related topic.
Methodology
Design of the Study: The study is a survey of the feeding patterns of pregnant women in
Delta State.
Population: The population consisted of all the married women of childbearing age who
have up to two children from various occupational groups in Delta State.
Sample:
A
sample
of
500
mothers
was
randomly
selected.
Ninety women were sampled form Ughelli South Local Government Area (LGA); 100
from Ughelli North l.G.A; 30 from Uvwie L.G.A; Aniocha L.G.A. 30; Ethiope East
L.G.A 28; Isoko North L.G.A. 72; Sapele L.G.A. 30; Ukwani L.G.A 37; Ndokwa West
33; and Isoko South 60 women. These made up 500 mothers.
Instrument: The instrument used for the data collection was a questionnaire. This sought
information on food eaten by the women during pregnancy, food preferred: peculiar food
eaten; food avoided; problems in feeding during pregnancy; food which are taboos to the
eaten; level of like/dislike of certain foods and frequency of feeding in a day.
Method of Data Collection: Copies of the questionnaire were given to the women to
respond to. Explanations were given on various items. The responses on the non literate
women were ticked into the questionnaire.
Method of Data Analysis: The data were analysed using frequency distribution tables,
calculating the percentage, mean and standard deviation. T-test was used to test the null
hypothesis. A mean of 3.50 or above, (obtained from the 6-point scale) shows that the
women like such an item during pregnancy. Any mean below 3.50 shows that such items
is disliked.
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© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
bridgetimonikebe@yahoo.com
Results
Finding show that 380 (76.0%) of the women are married while 120 (24%) are single.
Table 1: Age range of the women
Age Range
Frequency
Below 20 years
20 – 25 years
149
26 – 30years
31 – 35years
151
36 – 40years
200
Total
500
Table 1 shows that 29.8% of the women are between
Percentage
29.8
30.2
40.0
100
20 – 25years while 40.0% are between 36-40 years.
Table 2: Highest Qualification of the Women
Highest qualification
No formal education
First School Leaving Certificate
School Certificate/GCE
Diploma
NCE
University degree
Total
Frequency
10
10
50
302
128
500
Percentage
1.00
1.00
10.0
60.4
25.6
100
Table 2 indicates that 10% of the women are school certificate holders. Over half (60.4%)
are NCE holders.
Table 3: Local Government Areas of the Women
L.G.A.
Ughelli South
Ughelli North
Uvwie
Aniocha
Ethiope East
Isoko North
Sapele
Ukwani
Ndokwa West
Isoko South
Total
Frequency
90
100
30
30
28
72
30
37
33
60
500
Percentage
18.0
20.0
6.00
6.00
5.60
14.4
6.00
7.40
6.60
12.0
100
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Table 3 above shows the Local Government Areas of the women
© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
Table 4: Range of monthly income of the women
Monthly income
Less than N5000=
N5000 – N10, 000=
N11, 000 – N15, 000=
N16, 000 – N20, 000=
N21, 000 – N25, 000=
N26, 000 – N30, 000=
N31, 000 – N35, 000=
N36, 000 – N40, 000=
Above N40, 000=
Total
Frequency
20
170
171
139
500
Percentage
4.00
34.0
34.2
27.8
100
Table 4 reveals that 34.2% of the women earned a monthly salary of between N16, 000 =
- N20, 000=
The followings are the food eaten by the women during pregnancy. Rice 381(76.2%);
yam 379 (75.8%). Plantain 381 (76.2%); bread 311 (62.2%); garri 300
Rice 381 (76.2%); yam 379 (75.8%). Plantain 381 (76.2%); bread 311 (62.2%); garri 300
(60.0%); Cassava foofoo 185 (37.0%); pepper soup 380 (76.0%); fresh fish 301 (52.2%);
Iced fish was eaten by none of the women; Beans 378 (78.6%); Meat 388 (75.6%); Milk
380 (76.0%); Oil soup 120 (36.0%) Ankara 254 (50.8%); moinmoin 268 (53.6%); fried
ripe plantain 151 (30.2%) Fruits 227 (45.4%) Vegetable soup 211 (42.2%).
Table 5: Form of food preferred by the women during pregnancy.
Types of Food
Food prepared by yourself
Food prepared by any member of my
family
Food sold in a canteen
Food hawked by food vendors
Total
Frequency
150
288
Percentage
30.0
57.6
14
29
484
2.8
5.8
96.4
Table 5 shows that foods prepared by other members of the family were preferred by
57.6% of the women during pregnancy. Other forms of food preferred by the women are
snacks. 250 (50%); Soft drinks 155 (31%); Heavy food 250 (50%); Light Food 180
(36%); Alcoholic drinks 144(28.8%).
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The peculiar items the women like taking during pregnancy are as follows:- sweet 125
© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
(25%); Biscuit 254 (50.8%); Kola nuts 248 (49.6%); Bitter kola 215 (43%); Native
Chalk/earth like substance (clay) 120 (24%); Groundnuts 72 (14.4%). The reasons for
taking the peculiar items by the women during pregnancy are as follows: to keep my
mouth busy 200 (40%), I just like to eat them 240 (48%); to prevent me from getting
hungry 241 (48.2%); I like their taste 65 (33%); pregnant women usually take such items
in my area 160 (32%); the items give some nourishment 281 (56.2%); To prevent me
from spitting in the public 33 (6.67%).
All (500) 100% of the women like to take solid, liquid and semi-liquid food. Food that
are usually avoided by some of the women during pregnancy are beef 356 (71.2%); snail
381 (76.2%); Fried ripe plantain 150 (30%); milk 20 (4%); Ice Fish 357 (71.4%);
Bournvita 256 (51.2%); Okra Soup 107 (21.4%); Garri 106 (21.2%); Starch 161 (32.2%).
Table 6: Reasons for avoiding the food listed above.
Reasons
They smell to me
They make me feel like vomiting
They are expensive
I avoid them to control my weight
Frequency
277
281
70
14
Percentage
55.4
56.2
14.0
2.8
Table 6 show that one of the reasons why the women avoided the food was because such
foods make them feel like vomiting.
Table 7: The problem the women had with feeding during pregnancy.
Problems
Unavailability of the food I prefer to eat
Scarcity of the food I care for
Lack of appetite
Lack of interest to eat
Lack of energy to cook what I want to eat
Heartburn prevents me from eating well
Constipation
Diarrhea
Vomiting discourages me from eating
Insufficient money to purchase food preferred
Lack of knowledge of nutritious food
Frequency
256
369
250
211
219
254
259
267
352
412
416
Percentages
51.2
73.8
50
42.2
43.8
50.8
51.8
53.4
70.4
82.4
83.2
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Table 7 indicates that the women experience various problems e.g. lack of knowledge of
© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
nutritious food by 83.2% of the women.
Foods that are taboos to pregnant women are rabbit meat 100 (20%); snail 67 (13.4%);
snake 166 (33.33%); Iguana 200 (40%); Crocodile 33 (6.6%); Pork 34 (6.8%).
Standard
deviation
Mean (X)
Dislike
Moderately
Dislike
Like
Moderately
Like
Like very
much
Food
Dislike Very
much
Table 8: level of like/Dislike of certain foods during pregnancy
Beverages
92
75
120
90
93
-
3.97
1.39
Milk
Meat
Fish
Garri
Rice
Beans
Rice and
Beans
Yam
Cassava
Foofoo
252
320
222
358
28
156
140
80
92
99
95
182
150
100
85
89
78
80
144
136
93
81
26
51
-
-
5.31
5.48
4.89
4.07
5.41
4.57
4.93
0.79
0.78
1.17
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.92
80
81
166
169
51
55
101
112
-
-
4.57
4.52
1.07
1.09
Table 8 shows that all the items have mean above 3.50. This shows that the women liked
all the food during pregnancy.
The mode of eating of the women during pregnancy shows that 300 (60%) of them eat for
only themselves and the foetus and have to eat double of their portion of food.
Table 9: Number of times the women usually eat during pregnancy.
Number of Times
Once
Twice
Thrice
Four times
Five times
Whenever any food is brought across my way
Whenever I am hungry
Total
Frequency
Percentages
300
36
33
66
435
60
7.2
6.6
13.2
87
9
Yam
5.
40.
27
0.
25
27.
H
6A
9
5
.0
2.
0
08
.6
08
.H
32
R
1
4.
50.
15
0.
02
5
3
11
38
5.
40.
47
0.
55
73
H
8A
8
4
.1
7.
1
10
.7
61
3H
2.
R
2
5
.1
0.
1
12
..
24
56
95
04
63
35.
20.
49
0.
08
7
03.
H
2R
5.
60.
56
0.
34
1
00
2
68
6
0-
2
15
42
2
5-
5.
20.
18
0.
16
6
52
H
3R
5.
30.
77
0.
75
8
94
5
74
5-
1
68
83
5
5-
65
56
3
4.
81
0.
85
0.
71
32
H
5A
64
90
90
3.
15
1.
40
1.
97
37
55
10
NI = 306 (Low Income Group)
194 (High Income Group)]
Responses
Responses
4.
30.
98
0.
97
2
91
H
5R
5.
10.
09
0.
59
2
16
4
69
02
5-
Rice
/Beans
4.
71.
01
1.
63
6
5
1
11
02
5
04.
40.
09
0.
48
7
88.
H
9R
Beans
5.
40.
08
0.
26
8
76
4
52
1-
Rice
5
.0
7.
0
06
.8
85
35
7
74
4-
Garri
1
63
72
4
36
0-
Fish
6
86
5-
Meat
1
75
20
6
0-
Milk
2
15
21
2
4-
Beverag
es
1
31
00
4
46
2
6Very
Standard
Variance
deviation
t-Calculated
Remark
Like
very
Like
much
Like
Dislike
moderately
Dislike
Moderately
Dislike very
Mean
much (X2)
Like
Dislike
Moderately
Dislike
Moderately
Dislike very
Mean
much (X1)
Standard
Variance
deviation
Like
Like
Much
Food
7
45
63
95
1-
© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
bridgetimonikebe@yahoo.com
Table 9 Shows that 60% of the women usually eat 3 times in a day.
Table 10: Mean Responses of the low and high-income mothers on their levels of
like/dislike of certain foods during pregnancy in Delta State.
N2 =
Cassava
Foofoo
In table 10, N1 = 306 which is the number of the low-income earners; N2 = 194 which is
the number of the high-income group. 1.96 = table t-value; 0.05 = Level of significance;
498 = Degrees of freedom; HA = hypothesis Accepted; HR – Hypothesis rejected. All the
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items 1 – 11 have their mean above 3.50. this shows that both the low and high-income
© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
earners liked all the items during pregnancy. The table also shows that the calculated tvalues for items 1, 5, 6, 11 are less than the table t-value of 1.96 at degrees of freedom
498 at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis that states that there will
be no significant difference between the mean responses of the low and high income
earners on the level of like/dislike of the various food items during pregnancy is
accepted.
For items 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9 and 10 their calculated t-values are higher than the table t-values
of 1.96 at degrees of freedom 49.8 at 0.05 level of significance. Hence the alternative
hypothesis that states that there will be significant differences between the mean
responses of the low and high-income earners on their level of like/dislike of the food
items during pregnancy is accepted.
Discussion of results:
Most of the foods eaten by the women during pregnancy are yam, rice, plantain; bread,
garri, fish, milk. Few of them eat vegetables and fruits. Vegetables and fruits are
important sources of vitamins and minerals, which are highly needed for healthy
development of a foetus. Most of the foods eaten by the women are mainly carbohydrate
in nature. If their level of consumption is not controlled and protein food adequately
eaten malnutrition will definitely set in. This will adversely affect the foetus.
Half of the mothers preferred taking snacks and heavy food. Some like light food.
Alcoholic drinks were taken by 28.8% of the women during pregnancy. The high intake
of alcohol is detrimental to the foetus and could result in foetal alcoholic-syndrome.
The peculiar items the women like taking during pregnancy are sweets, kolanuts, bitter
kola and native chalk/earth like substance or clay. These substances are not nutritious and
hence the mothers need to be discouraged from taking them. Biscuit and groundnut were
eaten by some of the women. The major reasons for taking these peculiar items during
pregnancy are to keep their mouths busy; to prevent hunger, sleep and spitting in the
public.
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The food some of the women usually avoid during pregnancy are snail, milk, iced fish,
© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
garri and starch. Apart from garri and starch all the other foods are proteins of high
biological value, which when taken can adequately improve their nutritional status.
The major problems the women had during pregnancy in relation to feeding are
unavailability of the foods they like to eat; food scarcity. Lack of appetite, heartburn,
constipation, vomiting, insufficient money; and lack of knowledge of nutritious foods. In
order to overcome the problem of lack of appetite and constipation. The women need to
take a lot of fruits and vegetables, (McGrath 1987). These could stimulate appetite and
prevent constipation.
Some of the foods that are regarded as taboo to be eaten or those to be forbidden during
pregnancy are rabbits, snake, pork, snail; iguana and crocodile.
Majority of the women eat thrice daily. Only few of them usually ate 4 (four) times and
whenever any food is brought across their way. Most of the women ate for themselves i.e.
normal portions of food, while 33.4% of them ate for two. Eating for two can lead to
overfeeding resulting in excess weight gain with its attendant problems.
Some of the foods that were liked very much by the women during pregnancy are meat,
rice, yam. Most of them disliked beverages and cassava foofoo.
Implications For Nutrition Education
Most of the foods eaten by the women during pregnancy are carbohydrates in nature.
This could lead to malnutrition and over weight. They need to be taught how to
supplement their feeding with proteins of high biological value. The problems of
constipation and lack of appetite could be overcome with adequate consumption of fruits
and vegetables.
Recommendations
1. Nutrition Education should be given to the pregnant mothers on the various ways
of supplementing their food.
2. There should be emphasis on the consumption of fruits and leafy vegetables. They
will prevent the problem of constipation.
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3. The women should be discouraged from eating non-food substances e.g. native
© 2010 Bridget IMONIKEBE
chalk/clay. Encouraging such women to eat little of cream crackers biscuit and
fruits could discourage such habits.
4. The women should be discouraged from eating too much of kola nuts (as means
of preventing vomiting) due to the high content of nicotine present.
5. The taking of alcoholic drinks should be discouraged during pregnancy. The
taking of strong drinks by such women could result in foetal alcoholic syndrome.
6. The women should be taught to eat much of vegetables and fruits as they contain
vitamins, which could stimulate appetite. This will prevent the problem of lack of
appetite.
7. Nutrition Education should be given to the mothers in their choice and
consumption of nutritious meals.
8. Nutrition Education to be given to the mothers should de-emphasize the
consumption of excess carbohydrate.
9. Pregnant women should be discouraged from eating for two during pregnancy.
They should rather be encouraged to eat satisfactorily and not overfed.
10. Husbands should reasonably increase the monthly feeding allowance of their
families when their wives are pregnant in order for women to be able to purchase
and feed on nourishing foods.
References
Atimo T. (1999) Nigeria – Nutrition and National Development in the Next Millennium.
A keynote address presented at the opening ceremony of the 30th Annual conference of
the Nutrition Society of Nigeria, Enugu.
Ene-Obong H. N. (2000) A-Right-Based Approach to maternal Malnutrition in Nigeria.
A paper presented at the 31st Annual National Conference of the Nutrition Society of
Nigeria, Abuja.
Enugu G. L. (1998) Socio-economic and Cultural Factors affecting the Nutritional status
of women in Enugu State U. N. N.
McGuire and Pokin (1998), Beating the Zero – Sum game, women and Nutrition in the
third World past. Food/Nutr Bull. 11 (4) 38 – 63.
McGrath H. (1987) About the House. Introduction to Home Economics Oxford
University Press
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