Social Cognition
Lecture 1
28-01-09
Wundt: structuralism
people tend to do things in a similar way
study these regularities (through introspection)
you can’t count love, thought cannot be quantified
Introspection;
thinking of thinking activity
3rd person view
studying your own thoughts is impossible
Skinner: studying behavior without studying thought
Behaviorism can explain a lot… but not everything
Festinger: people are motivated to maintain consistency (dissonance theory).
Experiment $1 reward (no rationalization) / $20 reward
Social Cognition
Chapter 1
Introduction: What is social condition research about?
Social cognition is about social knowledge and the cognitive processes involved when
individuals construct their subjective reality.
Different perspectives on the social thinker:
consistency seekers (but the world is not consistent)
attribution theories (how people explain behaviours and events)
cognitive miser (simplify cognitive processes)
motivated tactician (multiple strategies)
The cognitive component of social cognition
Gestalt: not the stimulus, but the perception
context
whole is more than the sum of its parts
What is social about social cognition?
-
focus on social nature of stimulus
process of social information is a genuinely social process
Overview: the structure of this book
Social Cognition
Lecture 2
11-02-09
Cold cognition (concepts) / hot cognition (affective responses)
Cold cognition:
Hierarchical model of concepts
different attributes match the concept
Functions:
make sense
make inferences
communication
Basic level category: most people categorize is as this
easiest to visualize
first learned by children (apple / fruit)
Wittgenstein
how to define games?
with what attributes?
o skills / cheating someone?
family resemblances -> for most of….this accounts
Probabilistic model (close and far relatedness)
grouped around family characteristics
Prototype view: calculation: sum of defining attributes
prototype is in the middle and is a non-existing thing
Exemplar view: real object
best example that exists
But we use a mixed model
Ebbinghaus: meaningless syllables (remember them)
When accurate: incongruent information is remembered best
When no attention: congruent information is remembered best
Flashbulb memory: significant events
Memory is reconstructive; recreate history
Eich: mood dependent memory
memory is stored like concepts (interconnected models)
Social Cognition
Chapter 2
A first look at social cognition
Overview
Constructing social reality:
(1)
input from a situation
(2)
input of prior knowledge
(3)
processes operating the input
General themes
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
interplay of stimulus and prior knowledge
a. concept driven or top down processing (when processing is based on
prior knowledge)
b. data driven or bottom up processing (when processing is based on
stimuli)
limitations of processing capacity
a. capacity constraints solutions: simplifying and mental shortcuts
(heuristics)
amount of processing
interplay of automatic and controlled processes
a. automatic processes: unintentional, not controlled, outside awareness
b. controlled processes: regulation, within awareness
The sequence of information processing
Attention to stimuli that stand out (are distinct)
After perceiving a stimulus -> allocating attention
Perceiver has to encode and interpret (give meaning)
Usage of categories
infer more information than that is given
Applicability: can the category be used to give meaning?
Accessibility: the ease with which prior knowledge can be retrieved form memory
(recency and frequency)
Storage of information depend on processing goals and prior knowledge
Inconsistent information is memorized best
Inferences can be seen as judgements. Judgement is formed by the information that
comes into mind. Judgemental shortcuts are heuristics -> beware of bias.
Social Cognition
Lecture 3
Memory
Memory is a process heavily influenced by retrieving.
Memory is stored like concepts
Mood dependent memory: mood-learn = mood-remember -> better memory
Source monitoring framework
elements in your memory are like the interconnected model
not tagged with labels
Hindsight bias: new knowledge transferring into the past
Social Cognition
Chapter 3
Memory organization as a key to understanding social cognition
How is information organized in memory?
-
categories
o make it possible to infer many properties to a new stimulus
stereotypes
o category of social group or person types
schema
o procedure of routine of category
scripts
o standard sequences
cognitive maps
o spatial representation of a scenario
Multiple components form an associative network.
Prototype: average on relevant attribute values
Ideal type: extreme values
How is information retrieved?
Availability of information (does it exist)
Accessibility of information (is it ready to be retrieved)
Priming: activating one stimulus facilitates the processing of related stimuli.
Evaluative priming: two stimuli, measuring response time (black-bad, white-good)
Mood priming: causing emotional states in participants
Semantic priming: stereotypical and counter stereotypical -> can this be true? (blackambitious)
Action priming: e.g. rudeness -> interrupting researcher
Procedural priming: priming relations between concepts
Internally experiences feeling state as a prima: for example body posture
Linking old to new information
Old knowledge is quiet resistant to change
Organization: inter-item associations
Elaboration: intra-item associations
Information is reconstructed; what happens normally on a day?
Basic recall advantage because of bottom-up processing.
Consistent information reconstruction because of top-down processing.
Consistent information does not have to get encoded.
Controlling the consequences of activated information.
Assimilation effect: shift in the direction of the activated information
Contrast effect: shift away from the activated category or schema
-
direct correction: being aware of influence
recomputation: reset – leaving biasing information out
differential use of information: conscious inclusion or exclusion
automatic control
Using implicit social cognition for diagnostic purposes
IAT: Implicit Association Test
Social Cognition
Judgemental heuristics in social cognition
Introduction
What are judgemental heuristics?
Judgemental heuristics are simple “rules of thumb” that are applied to readily
available information and gives, with little effort, a judgement that is sufficiently
accurate. But… biases can occur!
Availability heuristic
-
the easier with which cases are retrieved, the higher the estimation
ease of retrieval: how easy is it to think of…
Representativeness heuristic
-
certain characteristics -> typical sort of…
how typical is an element for a specific category?
Bias: negelecting bas rates
Conjunction error: more specific; is more chosen than more general, because if fits
better.
Random sample: intuitive perception; intuitive perception rules out regularities:
lottery; 1,2,3,4,5,6 vs 2,15,18,27,33,41
Anchoring and adjustment
-
starting from an initial value and adjust it to get a final judgement
but; distortion to starting value (anchoring effect)
SAM: Selective Accessibility Model
selective accessibility model
selective hypothesis testing: comparing actual with anchor
semantic priming: knowledge from anchor is the prime
Fundamental attribution error: overestimation of influence of personal factors on the
behaviour of others, underestimation of situational factors.
Hindsight bias: given correct solution, people overestimate that they could correctly
solve the problem.
Other heuristics in the judgemental process
-
readably accessible information (related) is used as basis for the
judgement (e.g. mood)
affective feeling serve as indicators for the qualities of judgmental
process (how-do-i-feel-about-it)
cognitive activities (e.g. feeling of effort)
o little valence (not positive or negative)
Specific stimulus characteristics as the basic for heuristic judgments.
Alternative explanations and further developments.
task understanding
other cognitive processes
presentation (probabilities)
Concluding remarks
Availability heuristics is only used when judgements are less important (low
relevance).
Social Cognition
Chapter 4
Heuristics
Simon: people do not have the processing capacity
-
heuristic; mental tool used in judgement and decision making
Three major heuristics:
representativeness
o ignoring base rates
o overestimate predictive value of types of information
o failure to see randomness
availability
o ease with which examples come to mind
anchoring
o setting “anchor” (also non-numeric)
Fundamental Attribution Error: focus on internal causes.
Social Cognition
Lecture 6
11-03-09
Biases in cold reasoning (distant from self-concept)
Computer approach; check confirming and non-confirming
People approach; only check confirming
Positive test strategy: supportive evidence
illusionary correlation
Social Cognition
Chapter 5
The use of information in judgments
Using what’s on your mind
Assimilation effect: judgement in line with activated information
Cognitive aspect of information use
Negative correlation on judgement if someone is aware of being influenced.
Feeling serve as the basis for inferences
Perceived typicality of activated information has a crucial role in relying on it.
Is information applicable?
The communication of judgements
subjective rating scales
-
given new contract
o context: what is known, what information does this person need?
The inclusion / exclusion model
Evaluative judgments based on features have two mental representations:
target
standard
Both are formed on the spot (assimilation effect)
Inclusion / exclusion -> three filters
exclude irrelevant influence
exclude not representative
norms of conversation
Pass: information is included
Motivational aspects of information use
Motivated to be accurate (when higher involvement) -> content as basis
Justify to third person; reasons (and not subjective rubbish), use content!
Accountability
Avoiding stereotypes -> use content
There are differences in the need for cognition between individuals.
The role of knowledge
-
something that stands out is more likely to leave a memory trace.
Social Cognition
Lecture 6
From cold to hot reasoning
We think everyone evaluates situations as they are and we underestimate the
subjective construal.
Counterfactual -> the non-effect if only... he had taken the usual route (e.g.)
Mentally undo exceptional events
Instead of routine
Mentally undo controllable by individual
Action is more regrettable than inaction
more easily to undo action than mentally adding inaction
People on long term regret inactions more than actions (63%)
short term; regret of action
Over time we forget about the obstacles that prevented us from acting.
Hot reasoning;
emotionally laden
involve the self
Hot: people want to protect themselves
Cold: inconsistent with past tests
Cognitive dissonance:
Aronson: important -> AROUSAL
Essay -> arousal:
Distress -> attitude change
Pill expectations:
Arouse (explanation) – None – Relax (counter-explanation)
Social Cognition
Chapter 6
Testing hypotheses in social interaction: how cognitive processes are constrained by
environmental data
Social hypothesis testing: updating knowledge in the light of environmental data.
Social life is full of hypothesis testing
build-in device for confirmation
Two prominent classes of hypothesis:
beliefs
desires
Three research paradigms (bias of data input);
select particular data (positive testing)
produce the date (threat targets differently)
environmental efforts (amount of observations -> learning)
Completing the hypothesis-testing paradigm: verification effects at various stages of
cognitive processing.
-
information search
social perception
memory encoding
retrieval processes
communication
All have biases!
Selective retrieval, biases:
motivated recall
constructive memory intrusions
deductive retrieval structures
Judgement and decision making
-
online (direct)
memory based
Communication and sharing of social information
-
linguistic expectancy bias (in group serving)
Social Cognition
Lecture 7
More about hot reasoning
The self is always positive
Abraham Tesser: self evaluation
Depressed people; less self maintenance effect
Change self-view to reinforce themselves
Above-average effect
stronger on ambiguous tasks (for example driving)
The effects of mood;
priming; associated network
information; (experiment with weather)
Sexual attraction on bridges;
arousing vs normal bridge
male vs female interviewer
TAT administered;
sexual imagery is higher in fear + female condition
calling back is higher in fear + female condition
Because of… AROUSAL!
But, there is incorrect labelling of it, people think they are aroused by the girl instead
of the bridge.
Positive mood;
fewer cognitive resources
avoid deep processing (actively)
not motivated to engage in deep processing
are signalled that everything is okay
People in positive mood; superficial processing, relying on stereotypes.
Mood effects both content and process!
Accuracy goal; not motivated to arrive at certain conclusion, but to the accurate
conclusion (not enhancing the self).
Closure goal; a conclusion is a goal itself.
Social Cognition
Lecture 8
Automatic processing
Automaticity; below awareness (like lower mental functions)
Controlled; slow, conscious, effortful
Automatic; fast, efficient, unconscious
Automatic <-> controlled
Bargh; perceiving is for doing
-
scrambled sentences
interruption (rude / polite)
elderly (time walking)
Communal power; common good
Exchange power; power for yourself
Social Cognition
Lecture 9
Stereotyping
Stereotypes;
-
attribute of a category
attribute of a social category
Stereotype -> prejudice -> discrimination
Jane Elliot; blue / brown eyes experiment
Social Cognition
Lecture 10
Implicit measures
Cognitive load blocks stereotype activation
Cognitive load facilitates stereotype application
Explicit MRS -> not predictive
IAT more easily
include the self
IAT-RF
-
congruent and incongruent trials
Affect Misattribution Procedure
liking of something
o before black or white face
Positive pulls towards, negative pushes away (joystick)
Shooter bias (for example a black male)
Social Cognition
Lecture 13
Last lecture
Higgins; promotion and prevention (gas + brake in car)
regulatory focus
Ideals: promotion focus learned by presence or absence of positives
Oughts: prevention focus learned by absence or presence of negatives
Preventions focus -> negative things -> better performance on tasks
Promotion focus -> positive things -> better performance on tasks
Fitzsimons & Bargh
Goal -> Attainments (influence by self regulation)
Automatic self regulation
to environment
Goal remains active until fulfilled
shielded from competing goals
Superstition; people don’t try to disconfirm the hypothesis
Superstition can be good;
-
won’t miss connections
have a certain feeling of control
Social Cognition
Chapter 7
Beyond cold information processing: the interplay of affect and cognition
Moods do not interrupt activities, but act in the background.
Happy mood: recall more positive than negative events
Bower’s associative network -> affective states are central nodes
Mood-congruent recall hypothesis; material is more likely to be recalled if its
affective tone matches the individuals affective state at the time of retrieval.
Mood and evaluative judgments
Mood and processing style
Happy moods -> higher use of stereotype
Happy moods -> no difference in persuasion with weak or strong arguments
Sad mood -> only persuasion with strong arguments