MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY, CULTURAL HERITAGE & MUSEUM STUDIES
ARCHAEOLOGY AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS (ARC 403)
Course Coordinator: Paul Hubbard. Email for correspondence: hubcapzw@gmail.com
COURSE SYNOPSIS
In a rapidly developing world, the use of computers in archaeology needs to be examined. This course
will explore various aspects, from data structuring to data processing using computers. The use,
applicability and effectiveness of complex software in archaeology will be examined, including
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and multimedia.
COURSE AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The course aims to provide students with a good working knowledge of the uses to which computers
and associated information technology can be put in archaeology. A special focus on the use and abuse
of GIS in archaeology will ensure that students develop an appreciation of the potentials and
difficulties encountered when applying new technology to archaeological problems. The course also
aims to impart a few basic skills needed in GIS applications.
READING
Students are strongly encouraged to constantly check for updates on the E-learning facility where they
will be able to download relevant literature. Students are also reminded to search on the Internet for
articles. Photocopies of a few articles will be made available in the Archaeology Department. The
standard references for the course will be Conolly & Lake (2006) and Lock (2003). Further references
may be noted during lectures.
EVALUATION
The module will be evaluated through continuous assessment that involves two assignments (25%), and
examinations (75%). Students will be tested general knowledge as well as specific issues covered in the
lectures and in the readings. Tutorials are compulsory to all students taking this course.
COURSE OUTLINE
1) Introduction to Computers and Archaeological Practice
 Theoretical Considerations
 Historical Background
2) Uses of Computers by Archaeologists
 Applications in the Office and in the Field
 Development of Software by Archaeologists or by Specialist Programmers?
3) Quantitative Analysis
 Categories of Data
 Types of Analyses
 Problems and Prospects
4) Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
 Historical Perspective
 What is a GIS?
 Types of Data Structure
 Archaeological Applications
 CRM and GIS
 Potentials and Challenges with Archaeological GIS
5) Multimedia and the Internet
 Definitions
 Museums and Interactivity
 Information Accessibility Revolution
6) Future Prospects and the Call of the Future
 Open Source Software
 Virtual Reality
 Archaeological Computer Programming
FURTHER READING
Introduction to Computers and Archaeological Practice
Coppock, T. (ed.) 1999. Information Technology and Scholarship. Applications in the Humanities and Social Sciences.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Fagan, B.M. 2001. In the beginning: An introduction to archaeology. (10th edition). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Farjas, M. & and Research Team LAR. 2004. Multimedia Technology in Cartography as a tool for Archaeology. in Making
the connection to the Past CAA99. Fennema, K. & Kamermans, H. (eds), Leiden: Computer Applications and Quantitative
Methods in Archaeology.
Gamble, C. 2001. Archaeology: The Basics. London: Routledge.
Johnson, M. 1999. Archaeological Theory. An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Lock, G. 2003. Using Computers in Archaeology. Towards Virtual Pasts. London: Routledge.
Karega-Munene. 1992. Dissemination of archaeological information: the east African experience. in Archaeology in the
Information Age: a global perspective. Reilly, P. and Rahtz, S. (eds), 41-46, London: Routledge.
Orton, C. 2000. Sampling in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sinclair, P.J.J., Kokonya, M., Meneses, M. & Rakotoariosa, J.A. 1992. The impact of information technology on the
archaeology of eastern and southern Africa: the first decades. in Archaeology in the Information Age: a global perspective.
Reilly, P. and Rahtz, S. (eds), 28-40, London: Routledge.
Renfrew, C. & Bahn, P. 2000. Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice. (3rd Edition). London: Thames & Hudson.
Roskams, S. 2001. Excavation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
VanPool, C.S. & VanPool, T.L. 1999. The Scientific Nature of Postprocessualism. American Antiquity 64 (1): 33-53.
Quantitative Analysis
Conolly, J. & Lake, M.W. 2006. Geographical Information Systems in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Ebdon, D. 1977. Statistics in Geography: A practical approach. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Fletcher, M. & Lock, G.R. 2005. Digging Numbers. Elementary Statistics for Archaeologists. (2 nd Edition). Oxford: Oxford
University School of Archaeology. (Monograph 33).
Floud, R. 1973. An Introduction to Quantitative Methods for Historians. London: Methuen & Co.
Hodder, I. & Orton, C. 1976. Spatial Analysis in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mak,
S.
2003.
Point
Pattern
Analysis:
Nearest
Neighbour
Distance
http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/geog516/presentations/sunny1.htm (Accessed 01/08/2006)
and
Quadrat
Analysis.
Orton, C. 1980. Mathematics in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shennan, S. 1988. Quantifying Archaeology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
Aronoff, S. 1991. Geographic Information Systems: A Management Perspective. Ottawa: WDL Publications.
Benwell, G.L., McLennan, B.R., Grasberger, T. & Fryer, J. 2002. Spatial Data Analysis of Aboriginal Rock Extraction Sites
at Brewarrina, NSW, Australia. Paper Presented at SIRC 2002 – The 14th Annual Colloquium of the Spatial Information
Research Centre Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand, December 3rd-5th 2002
http://www.business.otago.ac.nz/SIRC05/conferences/2002_SIRC/10_Benwell.pdf (Accessed 18/09/2006)
Bevan, A., Frederick, C. & Krahtopoulou, N. 2003. A Digital Mediterranean Countryside: GIS approaches to the spatial
structure of the post-medieval landscape on Kythera (Greece). Archaeolgia e Calcolatori 14: 193-212.
Brandt, R., Groenewoudt, B.J. & Kvamme, K.L. 1992. An experiment in archaeological site location: Modelling in the
Netherlands using GIS techniques. World Archaeology 24 (2): 268-282.
Burrough, P.A. & McDonnell, R.A. 1998. Principles of Geographic Information Systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chimowa, M. & Nugent, C. n.d. A Fisheries GIS For Zimbabwe: An Initial Analysis Of The Numbers, Distribution and Size
of Zimbabwe's Small Dams. FAO/UNDP ZIM/88/021. http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/003/AB969E/AB969E00.htm
Clarke, D.L. 1977. Spatial Information in Archaeology. in Spatial Archaeology Clarke, D.L. (ed.), 1-32, London: Academic
Press.
Conolly, J. & Lake, M.W. 2006. Geographical Information Systems in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Fisher, P., Farrelly, C., Maddocks, A. & Ruggles, C. 1997. Spatial Analysis of Visible Areas from the Bronze Age Cairns of
Mull. Journal of Archaeological Science 24: 581-592.
Gaffney, V. & Stancic, Z. 1996. GIS approaches to regional analysis: A case study of the island of Hvar. Ljubljana:
Znanstveni institute Filozofske fakultete. See also http://www.arch-ant.bham.ac.uk/research/vince/index.htm
Harris, T. 2000. Session 2 discussion: Moving GIS: exploring movement within prehistoric cultural landscapes using GIS.
in Beyond the Map: Archaeology and Spatial Technologies Lock, G. (ed.), 116-123, Amsterdam: IOS Press.
Hubbard, P. 2006. GIS and the Late Stone Age in Zimbabwe: An Examination of Site Patterning in the Matopos.
Dissertation Submitted in Partial Requirement for the Degree of MSc in GIS and Spatial Analysis in Archaeology at the
University Of London.
Hunt, E.D. 1992. Upgrading site-catchment analyses with the use of GIS: investigating the settlement patterns of
horticulturalists. World Archaeology 24 (2): 283-309.
Husdal, J. 2000. How to make a straight line square - Network analysis in raster GIS Unpublished MSc Thesis, University
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Huxhold, W. 1991. An Introduction to Urban Geographic Systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lake, M.W. & Woodman, P.E. 2003. Visibility studies in archaeology: A review and case study. Environment and Planning
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Mehrer, M.W. & Wescott, K.L. (eds) 2006. GIS and Archaeological Site Modelling. London: Taylor & Francis.
Nigro, J.D., Ungar, P.S., de Ruiter, D.J. & Berger, L.R. 2003. Developing a Geographic Information System (GIS) for
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Archaeological Reports International Series 207.
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Taruvinga, P. 2001. GIS and Archaeology: A Spatial Analysis of Rock Art in the Matopo Hills Area, Southern Zimbabwe.
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van Leusen, P.M. 1999 “Viewshed and Cost Surface Analysis using GIS (Cartographic Modelling in a Cell-Based GIS II) in
CAA ’98 New Techniques for Old Times Barceló, J.A., Briz, I. and Vila ,A. (eds.), 215-223, Oxford: Archaeopress (BAR
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van Leusen, M. 2002. Pattern To Process: Methodological Investigations into the Formation and Interpretation of Spatial
Patterns in Archaeological Landscapes. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Groningen, Netherlands
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(Accessed 16/03/2006).
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Practical Applications of GIS for Archaeologists: A predictive modelling toolkit. Wescott, K.L. & Brandon, R.J. (eds), 5-32,
London and New York: Taylor & Francis.
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Wescott, K. & Brandon, J. (eds) 2000. Practical Applications of GIS for Archaeologists: A predictive modelling kit. London:
Taylor & Francis.
Wheatley, D. & Gillings, M. 2000. Vision, perception and GIS: Developing enriched approaches to the study of
archaeological visibility. in Beyond the Map: Archaeology and Spatial Technologies Lock, G. (ed.), 1-27, Amsterdam: IOS
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Multimedia and the Internet
Abungu, L. 2002. Access to digital heritage in Africa: bridging the digital divide. Museum International 54 (3): 29-34.
Bogdanovic, I., Vicente, O. & Barceló, J. 2004. A Theory of Archaeological Knowledge Building by Using the Internet. in
Making the connection to the Past CAA99. Fennema, K. & Kamermans, H. (eds), Leiden: Computer Applications and
Quantitative Methods in Archaeology.
Bowen, J. 2000. The virtual museum. Museum International 25 (1): 4-7.
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Gill, T. 1995. What is Multimedia? In Multimedia. Cambridge: Museums Documentation Association. 1-7.
Gordon, S. 1999. The Virtual Museum - who needs it? in Archaeology in the Age of the Internet CAA97 Dingwall, L., Exon,
S., Gaffney, V., Laflin, S. & Van Leusen, M. (eds). BAR International Series 750, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Rahtz, S. & Sinclair, P.J.J. 1994. Multimedia Information systems for East African Archaeology. Archeologia e Calcolatori
5: 219-237.
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challenges of the world wide web. Journal of Conservation and Museum Studies 2: 60-79.
Future Prospects and the Call of the Future
Fleming, S.J., Fitts, W.R. & Zimmerman, P.C. 2004. New Approach to the Process of Exploration and Interaction for
Visitors to a Museum Exhibition. in Making the connection to the Past CAA99. Fennema, K. & Kamermans, H. (eds),
Leiden: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology.
Fuldain González, J.J. 2004. Computer Aided Drawing System on Archaeological Material. in Making the connection to the
Past CAA99. Fennema, K. & Kamermans, H. (eds), Leiden: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in
Archaeology.
Gaffney, C., Hughes, G. & Gater, J. 2005 Geophysical Surveys at King Lobengula’s Palace KoBulawayo, Zimbabwe.
Archaeological Prospection 12: 31-49.
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Lake, M.W. 2000. MAGICAL computer simulation of Mesolithic foraging. in Dynamics in Human and Primate Societies:
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Oxford University Press.
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77–79.
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Great Zimbabwe. in The Development of Urbanism from a Global Perspective. Sinclair, P.J.J. (ed.),
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Useful Websites
http://www.harrismatrix.com/index.html
http://www.nmmz.co.zw/index.cfm
http://www.tongaheritage.co.zw/
http://www.safa.rice.edu/
http://acl.arts.usyd.edu.au/~barry/ca.htm#blocks1
http://sdrc.lib.uiowa.edu/ejab/index.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
http://www.terrainmap.com/rm22.html
http://intarch.ac.uk
Computer Applications in Archaeology Proceedings
Clark, J.T. & Hagemeister, E.M. (eds) 2007. Digital Discovery. Exploring New Frontiers in Human Heritage. CAA2006.
Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. Archaeolingua, Budapest.
Figueiredo, A. & Leite Velho, G. (eds) 2007. The world is in your eyes - Proceedings of the XXXIII Computer Applications
in Archaeology Conference: Tomar March 2005, CAA. Portugal: Tomar.
Ausserer, K.F., Börner, W., Goriany, M. & Karlhuber-Vöckl, L. (eds) 2004. Enter the Past. The E-way into the four
Dimensions of Cultural Heritage. CAA 2003, Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. BAR
International Series 1227, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Doerr, M. & Sarris A. (eds) 2003. The Digital Heritage of Archaeology. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods
in Archaeology. Hellenic Ministry of Culture.
Burenhult, G. (ed.) 2002. Archaeological Informatics: Pushing The Envelope CAA2001. Computer Applications and
Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. BAR International Series 1016, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Stancic, Z. & Veljanovski, T. (eds) 2001. Computing Archaeology for Understanding the Past CAA2000. Computer
Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. BAR International Series 931, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Fennema, K. & Kamermans, H. (eds) 2004. Making the connection to the Past CAA99. Computer Applications and
Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. CAA, Leiden.
Barceló, J. A., Briz, I. & Vila, A. (eds) 1999. New Techniques for Old Times CAA98. Computer Applications and
Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. BAR International Series 757, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Dingwall, L., Exon, S., Gaffney, V., Laflin, S. & Van Leusen, M. (eds) 1999. Archaeology in the Age of the Internet CAA97.
BAR International Series 750, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Lockyear, K., Sly, T.J.T and Birliba, V.M. (eds) 2000. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology
1996. Archaeopress, Oxford.
Kamermans, H. & Fennema, K. (eds) 1996. Interfacing the past: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in
Archaeology 1995. University of Leiden.
Huggett, J. & Ryan, N. (eds) 1995. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology 1994. Tempus
Reparatum, Oxford.
Wilcock, J. & Lockyear, K. (eds) 1994. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology 1993. Tempus
Reparatum, Oxford.
Andresen, J., Madsen, T. & Scollar, I. (eds) 1993. Computing the Past: Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in
Archaeology. 1992. Aarhus University Press, Aarhus, Denmark.
Lock, G. & Moffett, J. (eds) 1992. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology 1991. Tempus
Reparatum, Oxford.
Lockyear, K. & Rahtz, S.P.Q. (eds) 1991. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology 1990. Tempus
Reparatum, Oxford.
Several earlier ones do exist, dating back to the early 1970s. Some articles and books mentioned in the references may be
accessed at http://caa.leidenuniv.nl/proceedings/caa_2003_proceedings.htm (Accessed 15 May 2008).