REFERENCES
CHILD WELFARE PRACTICE IN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
Aspen Institute Roundtable on Community Change (2004). Structural Racism and Community
Building. Washington, D.C.: The Aspen Institute. Retrieved on March 2, 2009 from
http://www.kintera.com/atf/cf/%7BDEB6F227-659B-4EC8-8F84-8DF23CA704F5%7D/
aspen_structural_racism2.pdf.
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About the study/citationThe Aspen Institute Roundtable on Community Change has focused on how the problems
associated with race and racism in American affect initiatives aimed at poverty reduction in
urban neighborhoods. The Roundtable has explored how race shaped the social, political,
economic and cultural institutions of our society, and how those dynamics produce significant
and ongoing racial disparities in the well-being of children, families, and communities. This
publication represents an effort to summarize and share the Roundtable’s perspective on racial
equity.
Findings/content
Scientific studies conclude that race has no biological meaning or significance. The
gene for skin color is linked with no other human trait. Humans are far more alike than
different and share 99.9 percent of their genetic material.

Race does have social and political significance. Social scientists call the term race a
“social construct” that was invented and given meaning by human beings.

Structural racism refers to a system in which public policies, institutional practices,
and other norms work in often reinforcing ways to perpetuate racial group inequality. It
identified dimensions of history and culture that have allowed privileges associated with
“whiteness” and disadvantages associated with “color” to exist and adapt over time.
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


At pivotal points in U.S. history when socioeconomic factors produced abundant
opportunities for wealth and property accumulation, such as the G.I. Bill and home
mortgage subsidies, white Americans were positioned to take advantage of them, whereas
people of color were systematically prohibited from benefiting from them.
Psychological studies of African Americans adolescents have demonstrated that
consistent negative imaging contributes to negative self-acceptance and some mental
health issues.
Occupational segregation based on race, ethnicity or gender: Racial minorities and
women are overrepresented in the lowest paid and least desirable jobs. Researchers have
found that occupational segregation has been most pronounced for African American
male youth.
Racial inequities plague every important decision point in the criminal justice
process, including suspect profiling, arrests, verdicts and parole, have a cumulative effect
that results in dramatic racial disproportionality in the prison population.
Implications for CWSSocial workers should be aware of how a history of racism and oppression can affect the working
relationships with some families. Therefore, the worker must factor race into their analysis of the
causes of the problems they are addressing, and they must factor race into their strategies to
promote change.
Betancourt, H. and Lopez, S.R. (1993). The Study of Culture, Ethnicity, and Race in American
Psychology. American Psychologist, 48(6), 629-637.
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About the study/citationThe general purpose of this article is to share some of our preoccupations and views concerning
the status of the study of culture and related terms, such as race and ethnicity, in psychology.
Findings/content
The definition used for culture is that proposed by Herkovits (1948), who conceives
culture as the human-made part of the environment. Triandis et al. (1980) reformulated
the definition. According to Triandis, although physical culture refers objects, such as
roads, buildings and tools, subjective culture includes social norms, beliefs, and values.
It also includes cultural elements, such as familial roles, communication patterns, etc.

According to Jones (1991), the concept of race is fraught with problems for
psychology. The classification of people in groups designated as races has been
criticized as arbitrary, suggesting that the search for differences between such groups is
dubious. Specifically, there are more within-group differences than between-group
differences in the characteristics used to define the three so-called races. When
behavioral variations are studied in relation to race, the racial variable under study should
be defined, measured and proposed relationships tested.

Ethnicity is usually used in reference to groups that share a common nationality,
culture or language. It also refers to the ethnic quality of a group or affiliation of a group,
which is normally characterized in terms of culture.

Researchers encourage investigators to think carefully about the group of interest,
whether it be cultural racial, or ethnic and go beyond the group category to the specific
factors that underlie the group category.

The following two approaches would help psychologists to enhance the study of
culture: 1) Begin with a phenomenon observed in the study of culture and apply it crossculturally to test theories of human behavior and 2) begin with a theory, typically one that
ignores culture, and incorporate cultural elements to broaden its theoretical domain.

In an attempt to more directly assess cultural influences associated with ethnicity,
some investigators have been using measures of acculturation; however, there are
limitations to this.
Implications for CWSUnderstanding these differences in terminology will assist the worker in being more culturally
sensitive and reading such related research with a critical eye.
Brissett-Chapman, S. (1997). Child Protection Risk Assessment and African-American Children:
Cultural ramifications for families and communities. Child Welfare, 76(1), 45-63.
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About the study/citationThis article addresses the critical need for culturally competent assessments of the risk of child
maltreatment in African American families and the implications for both policy and practice.
Findings/content
Culturally sophisticated processes for risk assessment are crucial for child victims
who come under the supervision of the child welfare system. Reported victims are
typically young, are increasingly of color, and remain at high risk for child placement.

Certain items must be evaluated if the African-American adolescent is to be
understood, such as attitudes towards self, speech and language, family structures and
roles, socioeconomic status and community assessment.

Jackson and Westmoreland (1992) discussed the need to understand the family of
origin as the primary agent of socialization. They described the effects of racism and
oppression, the role of the family in providing racial socialization, and the impact of skin
color and socioeconomic status that impact the child’s self-concept.

Greater emphasis in professional training should be placed should be placed on the
complex dynamics of culture and on social acculturation. Most practitioners struggle
with the need for simple, direct action and often may shortcut the necessity of
understanding historical and community contextual factors that influence family
adaptation.
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Cross-cultural assessments require an increased element of time, valuation of the
legitimacy of the perspectives of involuntary clients, and the personal awareness of the
professional’s own values and cultural lens.

Practitioners should be trained to understand the significance of the worldview of
African Americans and the implications for planning interventions (English, 1991).

Professionals throughout the child welfare system should question linear-based
models of service planning; collaborative strategies should be prioritized; and teams
should engage in dialogue that examines various implications for cultural conflicts,
screening and intake and other issues.

Professionals should cultivate partnerships with extended family members and
kinship networks since they may prove to be the holders of the most accurate, predictive
assessment information. If such people are not engaged, cultural belief systems that are
reinforced by the family’s network may complicate positive case outcomes.
Implications for CWSIn order to complete an accurate, informative assessment on any family, specifically regarding
to African American families, culture must be take into account and considered in all aspects of
the assessment process. Likewise, culturally-appropriate interventions are needed to best serve
the needs of families.
Carter, N. (n.d.) Forging New Collaborations Between Domestic Violence Programs, Child Welfare
Services and Communities of Color: A report from focus groups conducted by the Women of
Color Network (WOCN). Harrisburg, PA: National Resource Center on Domestic Violence.
Retrieved on March 13, 2009 from http://new.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/WOCN_
ForgingColl.pdf.
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About the StudyThis project had two main goals: 1) To provide an opportunity for women of color working in
the field of domestic violence at the local and state level to participate in the growing discussion
around how to provide effective services to battered and assaulted women with children; 2) To
gather information from these service providers about what types of interventions they would
like to see developed to respond to the needs of battered women with children from racial and
ethnic communities. Over 100 women of color activists participated in the project. Responses
from 92 men and women were used to compile data. Respondents were 90 women and 2 men of
color who represented a wide range- 60% were African American, 19% were Latinos, 11% were
Asian Americans and 7% were Native American. The participants were from 30 states. The data
was collected at three intervals: 1) September 2002 at a WOCN meeting in Columbus, OH; 2)
November 2002 at a WOCN Leadership Institute Part II meeting in Miami, FL; 3) November
2002 in Green Bay, WI at WOCN’s Second Leadership Institute Training. All three groups were
provided with brief survey questionnaires mainly designed to facilitate discussion on relevant
topics. This project was conducted using a qualitative method.
Findings/content
Participants identified the following needs: increased collaboration between systems,
additional cross-training of workers from domestic violence and child welfare on
delivering culturally relevant services, expanded outreach about services, continuation of
systems advocacy and more supportive services to address the needs of battered women
living in poverty.

Participants viewed racism as one of the biggest barriers for women of color to accessing
and utilizing services. “Racism is a major issue for people in our community. Because
of the mistrust of systems, many people will not access services outside of the
community.

Finding ways to strengthen community capacity to participate in service delivery and
service development, and increasing the number of women of color in leadership roles
are two strategies discussed by participants for working towards more culturally-relevant
community-based services.

Institutional racism and discrimination were central themes raised throughout the project.
One participant stated, “…They (white service providers) pathologize things that are
unfamiliar. Lack of cultural competence is a major problem.

In many communities of color, a lack of resources to assist poor women of color with
basic survival needs reinforces child removal.

Once children are removed and in the system, women of color have to “jump through too
many hoops to get their children back.”

In many cases, DV and child welfare staff appear to lack sensitivity to the barriers racism
and discrimination create for women from racial and ethnic communities and therefore,
do not address these issues when assisting women planning for self-sufficiency and on
how to keep their families together.

Limitations- Possibility of writer bias, which would affect the validity of findings. Also,
a larger sample size and the use of quantitative research methods would be of value to
extend findings. Most respondents were African American, and the project could be
repeated including more women of other racial and ethnic groups that were not
represented.
Implications for CWSThe worker should be aware of how racism and oppression can influence their relationships with
families of color. In acknowledging and understanding these issues, the worker can offer
culturally-sensitive services and build a better working relationship with the client.
Casey-CSSP Alliance for Racial Equality in the Child Welfare System (2006). Synthesis of
Research Disproportionality in Child Welfare: An update. Retrieved on March 4, 2009
from http://www.racemattersconsortium.org/docs/BobHillPaper_FINAL.pdf.
(K5)
About the study/citationThis paper summarizes the current research findings on racial disproportionality and disparities
in treatment and services within the child welfare system. The paper explores recent patterns
involving child maltreatment and disproportionality, the role race plays at the different decisionmaking stages and the extent of racially disparate treatment in child welfare, and how other
social systems contribute to disproportionality in child welfare.
Findings/content-
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Disproportionality refers to the difference in the percentage of children of a certain
racial or ethnic group in the country as compared to the percentage of the children of the
same group in the child welfare system.
Disparity refers to unequal treatment when comparing a racial or ethnic minority to a
non-minority.
Research shows that children of color in foster care and their families are treated
differently from white children and their families in the system. For example, fewer
African American children receive mental health services even though the identified need
for this type of service may be great or greater for African Americans as for other racial
or ethnic groups.
As cited in this article and based on numerous pieces of research, theories about what
leads to minority disproportionality have been classified into three types of factors:
o
Parent and family risk factors-minorities are overrepresented because they
have disproportionate needs.
o
Community risk factors-overrepresentation has less to do with race and
class and more to do with residing in neighborhoods and communities which have
a lot of risk factors.
o
Organizational and systemic factors-contends that minority
overrepresentation results from the decision-making processes of CPS agencies,
the cultural insensitivities and biases of workers, governmental policies, and
institutional racism.

Based on the above chart:
o
Blacks and American Indians are the two most overrepresented groups, and
they are represented in foster care at twice their proportions in the population.
o
Although Hispanic families are just as likely to be poor as black families,
Hispanic children are more underrepresented in the child welfare system.

In a study in Pittsburgh, Nelson, Saunders and Landsmen (1993) found that black
families were more likely to be reported for maltreatment than white families.

In an urban county in Ohio, Sabol, Coulton, Pouousky (2004) found that black
children in the child welfare system were three times more likely to be the subject
substantiated reports by their tenth birthday than white children.

Analyses of 2000 NSCAW data revealed that at every age level, black children were
more likely to be placed in foster care than whites or Hispanics (Wulczyn, Barth, Yuan,
Jones-Harden, and Landsverk, 2005).

In one study, 80 percent of blacks needing housing services did not receive them,
compared to 65 percent of whites with comparable housing needs (Rodenborg, 2004).

In a longitudinal study in San Diego, Garland et al. (2000) found that, after
controlling for several factors (age, gender, type of maltreatment and severity of
emotional/behavioral problems) black and Hispanic youth were still significantly less
likely to receive mental health services than white youth.
Implications for CWSWorkers should be aware of the research regarding disproportionality in the child welfare system
and that this issue needs to be addressed in order enhance access to quality services for all
children, regardless of race or ethnicity.
Center for Advanced Studies in Child Welfare (2001). The Contribution of Ethnographic
Interviewing to Culturally Competent Practice. CASCW Practice Notes, 10. Retrieved on
March 3, 2009 from http://cehd.umn.edu/SSW/cascw/attributes/PDF/practicenotes/
Practicnotes_10.pdf
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About the study/citationThis issue provides an introduction to ethnographic interviewing. It describes what ethnographic
interviewing is, stages of the interview and how to incorporate it into practice.
Findings/content
Ethnographic interviewing is defined as a method of interviewing that began in the
field of anthropology and is widely practiced by social researchers in all fields. The
interviewer assumes the role of “learner” rather than “expert.” The interview is semistructured, while it is guided by the client’s responses.

The goal of ethnographic interviewing is to understand and appreciate experiences
and worldviews of people who are different from us.

Ethnography provides a framework for delivering culturally competent services.
Two principles stand out:
o
Active listening is required in order to understand the narrative of a family’s
life.
o
Respect for the cultural knowledge of families requires us to learn from
clients.
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The stages of the interview are as follows:
o
Setting the stage-stating purpose and goals and setting the tone of the
interview
o
Expressing ignorance- the worker should express a lack of knowledge about
the client’s culture
o
Open-ended questions- questions about the client’s perception of how the
community defines problems, norms, etc. These questions also regard how the
person relates to community cultural values and norms of behavior.
o
Cover terms- used that are frequently used by the client should be explored.
o
Descriptors- The worker can learn what meaning the client gives to cover
terms by asking descriptive questions. Descriptive questions include many types
of questions, such as space questions, time questions and language questions.

In order to incorporate ethnography into practice, the social worker needs to:
o
Be flexible and invite the client to talk
o
Learn about clients as individuals and as members of their cultural
community
o
Social workers are “learners” of the client’s culture and “experts” on the
problem solving process
o
Social workers should facilitate the client’s understanding of themes that
are within their story.

Limitations of ethnographic interviewing are:
o
Time-intensive process, so applying the technique to child welfare may
involve the need to adapt the model to fit policy timeframes.
o
Use of a qualified interpreter is important, but there are limitations in using
interpreters, such as the addition of an interpreter changing the dynamics of the
interview.
Implications for CWSThe worker needs to be aware of the importance of understanding the family’s culture in
engaging the family in case planning. Therefore, the worker should understand the use of this
technique as a means of building a collaborative relationship with the family and learning about
the cultural framework of the family.
Chapin Hall Center for Children (2008). Understanding Racial and Ethnic Disparity in Child
Welfare and Juvenile Justice. Chicago: Chapin Hall Center for Children at the University
of Chicago. Retrieved on March 13, 2009 from
(K5 )
About the study/citationThis paper starts by exploring the language to describe the extent of ethnic and racial differences
of children, both in the child welfare and juvenile justice systems. Then, it offers a common
language that is intended to clarify the meaning of the terms. This paper describes current efforts
to improve services in the two systems. The paper also offers a conceptual framework that uses
the language offered in the paper. The goal is to create productive debate about the most
effective methods to change racial and ethnic disparity.
Findings/content
The figure below is a physical representation of disproportionality. It underscores the fact
that the words disproportionality and overrepresentation are reserved for direct,
quantitative comparisons of the compositions of at least two or more populations.

Disparity is often used to describe differences in the experiences of children in regards to
their level of contact with juvenile justice and child welfare systems. However, it can
also be used to describe differences in access to care, utilization of care, or quality of care
(Braveman, 2006).

Often the terms disparity and disproportionality are used interchangeably. However,
disparities actually produce disproportionality. For example, the reasons why AfricanAmerican children are overrepresented (disproportionately represented in child-serving
systems is because of disparities in the likelihood of coming into contact with the system
and disparities in the likelihood of ending involvement with the system (Wulczyn &
Lery, 2007).

Robert Hill (2006) reviewed the literature on both the scope and nature of
disproportionality in child welfare, in which he concluded that children’s experiences
differ by race and ethnicity at all decision points in the system, except for reentry into
foster care.

In two recent studies (Church, 2006; Church, Gross and Baldwin, 2005), found that
reports of maltreatment of Latino children, when compared to non-Latino white children,
are more likely to be substantiated and that those children are more likely to be placed in
care and stay in care longer. Another study, however, found not differences between the
two groups at any stage of the child welfare process (Johnson et al., 2007).

Roberts (2007) notes that institutional racism may explain placement disparity.

A study of census tracts in three California counties examined social conditions in
relationship to the rates of maltreatment. For African-American children, poverty rates
and the density of alcohol outlets were positively associated with maltreatment risk, but
high levels of residential instability and higher percentages of African-American
residents were negatively associated with maltreatment risk. The percentage of femaleheaded households, poverty and unemployment predicted higher maltreatment rates for
Hispanic children. The percentage of elderly or Hispanic residents, poverty and the ratio
of children to adults was associated with higher maltreatment rates for white children
(Freisthler, Bruce and Needell, 2007).

Data from the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS) indicates that
in high poverty counties, the risk of maltreatment for African-American infants is nearly
four times the rates for white and Hispanic infants in the same counties.

Since the late 1970’s, federal legislation has addressed the issue of race and ethnicity
within the child welfare system in two ways: the Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978
(ICWA) and the Multi-Ethnic Placement Act of 1994 (MEPA).

The following is a list of initiatives or organizations that are addressing the issues of
disproportionality and disparity:
o Family to Family
o California Disproportionality Project
o California Disproportionality Project and Family to Family Rating Tool
o Minority Youth and Families Initiative
o Breakthrough Series Collaborative
o Undoing Racism
o AECF Race Matters Toolkit
o APHSA/NAPCWA Workgroup
o Courts Catalyzing Change
o General strategies are also provided.

The figure below is the conceptual framework for considering efforts to address disparity:
Implications for CWSThe worker should be aware of the statistics regarding disparity and disproportionality and their
possible roots, such as institutional racism. The worker should consider how these factors
influence case planning and services for children.
Hill, R. (2004). Institutional Racism in Child Welfare. Race and Society, 7(1), 17-33.
About the study/citationThis article discusses how institutional racism influences the operation of the child welfare
system and how this results in disparate effects on African-American children and their families.
Findings/content
The definition used for institutional racism in this article is that of Billingsley and
Giovannoni (1972) It is as follows:
o
It is the systematic oppression, subjugation, and control of one racial group
by another dominant or more powerful racial group, made possible by the manner
in which the society is structured. In this society, racism emanates from white
institutions, white cultural values, and white people. The victims of racism in this
society are black people and other oppressed racial and ethnic minorities.

Some characteristics of institutional racism are that is can be covert or overt,
unconscious or conscious, and unintentional or intentional.

Structural or unintentional discrimination refers to the disparate consequences of
societal trends and institutional policies on racial minorities that may not have been
explicitly designed to have racially discriminatory effects (Hill, 1990).

Research on “modern racism” has shown that institutional racism is often manifested
in inequitable mental health treatment of racial minorities through “aversive racism”
(Whaley, 1998).

Educational institutions are one important source for identifying children likely to
come to the attention of the child welfare system. Black students are also more likely than
white children to be labeled as “mentally or educationally retarded” and assigned to
special education.

There is some contradictory data about whether there are racial differences at various
stages of the child welfare system. Major reasons for these mixed results are different
methodologies used in these studies and the paucity of systematic data by race at different
stages.

Hill (2005) tested various logistic regression models to determine the set of variables
that were the strongest predictors of placement in foster care. His analysis identified five
strong predictors of placement in foster care: race of child (i.e., black versus white),
substance-abusing parents, children with disabilities, Medicaid recipients, and cases with
abuse allegations.

Although black children are more likely than white children to be freed from
adoption, they are still less likely to be adopted than white children (Altstein and McRoy,
2000).

According to three NIS studies, black families do not maltreat their children more
than white families. However, black children are more likely to be removed from their
homes for neglect (for reasons related to poverty) than for physical or sexual abuse.
Implications for CWSSocial workers should be aware of the existence of institutional racism and what things they can
do to enhance sensitivity and appreciation of other cultures, i.e., disavow that different cultures
are not inherently "inferior” to their own culture, treat families as partners and conduct selfassessments regularly to increase the awareness of stereotypes.
Mukhopadhyay, C. and Moses, Y. (1997). Reestablishing “Race” in Anthropological Discourse.
American Anthropologist, 99(3), 517-533.
(K1)
About the study/citationThe article is about the transition the field of anthropology is experiencing, specifically in the
subdisciplines of cultural anthropology and biological anthropology. Both of these disciplines
contributed to the unilinear, evolutionary theories of race and are now attempting to dismantle
the very ideology of race they help to create. In essence, this article addresses the concept of
race vs. “no race.”
Findings/content
Physical anthropology seems to have abandoned the notion of biological races in
favor of “no race.”

As early as 1897, Franz Boas questioned key assumptions in American racial
ideology, such as the correlation between language, culture and biology, and the idea that
cultural and linguistic inventions could be attributed to a group’s biological traits. He
provided data that challenged the notion of races as biologically fixed, permanent, and
homogenous.

By 1972, Richard Lewontin had demonstrated the existence of more variation within
than between the major racial groups, a finding that was supported by more sophisticated
DNA research.

Intradisciplinary collaboration supported anthropology’s contribution to the 1952
UNESCO on race, which rejected the linkage between sociocultural capacities and
biology, a fundamental premise of the racial world view.

By the 1980’s, anthropology appeared to have successfully challenged within the
profession, key elements in the racial worldview, particularly the existence of “biological
races” within the species of Homo sapiens and the belief in American racial categories as
universal and rooted in nature.

The term “ethnicity” has the advantage of carrying less “cultural baggage” and can be
employed as an analytical concept inclusive of African Americans as well as other
Americans of other ancestry.
Implications for CWSThe worker should be aware of race as a social construct versus biologically-based, and also,
what defines race can contribute to oppression and racism of some groups. The worker should
be aware of these social implications of race and how their view of client’s of color can affect the
relationship with the client.
Ryan, J.P., Garnier, P., Zyphur, M., and Zhai, F. (2006). Investigating the Effects of Caseworker
Characteristics in Child Welfare. Children and Youth Services Review, 28, 993-1006.
(K4)
About the study/citationThis paper investigates the role of caseworkers in determining outcomes in the child
welfare
system. The paper presents a framework for organizing and critically examining the role of
caseworkers in determining outcomes in the child welfare system. Particular focus was on the
relationship on the number of caseworkers assigned to each child, the racial match between the
child and caseworker, and the role of graduate education on the child’s length of stay in foster
care and reunification. Also, the researchers develop and test a variety of multi-level models to
better understand the association between key child welfare outcomes (length of stay and family
reunification) and caseworker characteristics. The study uses administrative data from the Illnois
Department of Children and Family Services (IDCFS). The data included allegation records,
placement information and caseworker information. The sample includes 5726 children entering
foster care placement for the first time between January 1, 1995 and December 31, 1995.
Sample so included children who exited the placement before December 31, 2004. For the
analyses, Mplus was used, so that a single model can be developed that permits for both
continuous and dichotomous outcomes in a multi-level framework. The analyses are designed to
answer the following research questions: 1) Is caseworker turnover associated with the length of
stay in foster care and the likelihood of achieving family reunification? 2) Is a MSW associated
with the length of stay in foster care and the likelihood of achieving family reunification? 3)
Does the race of caseworker modify the relationships at the child level, specifically the
relationship between child race, length of stay and family reunification?
Findings/content
Multi-level modeling revealed that caseworker characteristics are important factors in
understanding outcomes in the child welfare system.

Children associated with multiple caseworkers experienced significantly longer stays in
foster care.

Caseworker turnover is related to family reunification.

Children associated with MSW level caseworkers spend significantly less time (on
average 5.15 months less time) as compared with the children not associated with a MSW
level caseworker.

There is no significant relationship between MSW and likelihood of achieving family
reunification.

African American youth experience significantly longer stays in foster care and remain
less likely to achieve reunification, and this holds true regardless of race of caseworker.

Hispanic children are significantly less likely to achieve family reunification but only
when they are associated with African American caseworkers.

While Hispanic children stay in foster care longer than their African American and white
peers, this effect is only true of African American caseworkers of Hispanic children.

For both African American and Hispanic caseworkers, turnover did not reduce the
likelihood of achieving reunification.

For white caseworkers, an MSW significantly increases the likelihood of achieving
family reunification.

Race appears to be a proxy for a variety of factors including, but not limited to attitudes,
beliefs, values, geography, experiences and the behaviors that arise from such factors.

Conclusion-While the precise nature and magnitude of the effects is still unclear, this
study demonstrates that at least some caseworker characteristics do affect some important
child welfare outcomes.

Limitations- caseworker characteristics available for analysis were limited. Although the
study employed sophisticated analytic techniques to address problem associated with
multiple memberships, there remain problems with overlap. That is, children could not
be nested within the African American Hispanic, and white caseworker models.
Implications for CWSThe worker should be aware of how their own personal characteristics, such as values and
beliefs, may influence their decision-making process and the outcomes of child welfare cases.
The worker should explore how their own belief system, culture, background etc. might be
affecting their work and consult with their supervisors regarding this.
Vitell, S., Nwachukwu, S. and Barnes, J. (1993). The Effects of Culture on Ethical DecisionMaking: An application of Hofstede’s typology. Journal of Business Ethics, 12(10),
753-76.
(K4)
About the study/citationThis paper provides a conceptual framework as to how culture influences one’s perceptions and
ethical decision making in business. To do this, the authors adopted the cultural typology by
Hofstede (1979, 1980, 1983, 1984) regarding the differences between countries based on certain
cultural dimensions. Hofstede argues that societies differ along four major cultural dimensions:
power distance, individualism, masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance. All four of these
dimensions relate to ethics in the sense that they influence the individual’s perceptions of ethical
situations, norms for behavior and ethical judgments, among other things.
Findings/content
In their general theory of marketing ethics, Hunt and Vitell proposed that “cultural
norms affect perceived ethical situations, perceived alternatives, perceived consequences,
deontological norms, probabilities of consequences, desirability of consequences and
importance of stakeholders.”

The revised Hunt-Vitell (1992) general theory of ethics does not specify how cultural
norms influence ethical decision-making. Nor have empirical tests of study examined the
influence of cultural norms on ethical decision-making.

Based on Hofstede’s conceptualization of the individualism/collectivism construct, it
is suggested that business practitioners from countries that are low on individualism
would tend to be more susceptible to group and intraorganizational influence than their
counterparts from countries that are high on this construct.

Persons from more “individualist” societies, who are more concerned with their own
self-interest, will tend to be influenced less by group norms.

Robin and Reidenbach (1987) noted that the myriad code of ethics developed by
organizations in the U.S. do not seem to have an effect on behavior.

Societies that are strong in uncertainty avoidance, and therefore, intolerant of
deviants, can be expected to have a high degree of accuracy in predicting the actions of
individuals who share the membership of any social unit.
Implications for CWSThe worker needs to be aware of the influence of one’s own culture on perceptions of others in
the workplace, perceptions of families and how these cultural influences can impact the
relationship with the families on one’s caseload. The understanding of the different cultural
norms that exist within different societies is needed when working with different families in the
child welfare system.