IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCHING CARTOGRAPHIC
SUBJECTS
Vesna Ikonovic
Faculty of Geography University of Belgrade
Studentski trg 3/III, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
E-mail: vesna@gef.gef.bg.ac.yu
Summary
Maps are communication tools with which humankind interacts with spatial phenomena, creating them as analogues of
the perceived world. Cartographic systems reflect scientific and cultural level of society which produced them. Making
maps and researching by them demand applying cartography as science as well as a technique. In information age is
creating virtual reality systems which give new meaning to maps. Such systems not only create virtual reality world
from real GIS data, but may also visualize in real GPS data to users of computer graphic representation from virtual
reality world. On that way map author and map user become closer than ever before, because map user in particular
moment become map co-author.
Introduction
Contemporary education, apart from other things, means to acquire ability to use and read maps.
The map is an indispensable means of researching and reporting the exploring results. It has an
advantage over natural language because it is simpler and more encompassing for a certain kind of
information due to the usage of signs which give it the universality. The language of the map is the
language of graphics which stand in the same order in alphabet, numbers and articulation. That is
way the map can be understood in its basic shape and independent of the written language.
The map as a model of real space has a significant role in acquiring the scientific view of the world
which is one of the main goals of education and formation of personality. The map content is very
complex so that its understanding takes a few steps. First of all, we must perceive its outer content
given by an adequate cartographic method concretely and visually with plasticity and signs. At the
higher level of education, the inner content, structural and illustrative, the essence of which is to
understand the regularities of distribution and intensity of phenomena and processes of geographic
environment as well as their interrelations should be studied.
The subject matter of cartography is linked, on the one side, with the general philosophic theory of
knowledge, through categories of space and time, and on the other hand, with corresponding
sciences of scientific disciplines, through cartographic method and language. Language of map can
be considered as second language of geography. Cartographic language is much more complex than
the language itself due to different ways of putting words into a sentence. In natural language that
process is linear and words have grammatical forms. The process of reading maps is spatial, across
the whole map, and depends only on the position of the mapped phenomena, objects and processes.
The maps are mathematical and logical models, which are not just an illustration of the contents of
the real space, but also of their specific and relational traits which can’t be seen at first sight. The
maps are the expressions of higher creative thinking which advances the didactic process.
The cartographic method requires knowledge not only of the subject of research but also of the
graphic-cartographic principles of the content representation. It is a special “language” of
representation of researching results and as such usable even for laic.
The cartographic method is characteristic for all spatial sciences. Today cartography is defined as
science about transmission of graphical information and map as special information channel. The
language of map is the language of graphic. Signs are only graphic expressions until they become
the elements of map contents and get their connotations. Map has an advantage over the natural
language, because for particular kind of information it is considerable simple and much more
perceptive. Application of signs gives map universality, because it is comprehensible in its basic
shape and it is not dependent from written language. The geographical map permits to study of
regular distribution of objects, phenomena and processes in space system, their mutual connections
and conditions, which brings to the scientific conclusions about the change of geographical look of
the observed territory. It is irreplaceable means for research and scientific interpretation and
presentation the reaching results.
In information age is creating virtual reality systems which give new meaning to maps. Such
systems not only create virtual reality world from real GIS data, but may also visualize in real GPS
data to users of computer graphic representation from virtual reality world. Virtual reality hardware
systems exist, incorporating powerful 3D graphic generating computers, multi-sensory display
devices such as stereo vision / sound helmets and video rooms.
Forming Cartography course on Internet is a good idea. It is good opportunity for authors to exange
ideas and new scientific knowledge. Also, it is good for students (graduated and post-graduated) to
learn new things by using Internet because many of them (especially students from undeveloped
countries) haven’t opportunities to study at good world universities and buy all good books for
scientific discipline for which they are interesting.
For laic it is convenient to learn and improve knowledge in particular field for which he/she is
interested. Maps become much more part of every day life and it would be good to learn how to use
it on different ways with no matter is it on traditional (paper) media or in digital form on computers.
Sign and Meaning
The subject matter of signs and meaning have a great importance in ontological development of
man. Signs affect our vision of the world since they carry certain cultural and social heritage. In
geography, it is maps through which a science development could be traced since they are a product
of geographic knowledge of one time.
Each mapping starts with visual observation and object imagination. Observation means seeing
prominent characters of the object in order to identify phenomena. Making visual images of an
object is a specific approach to an object and seeing even invisible parts as well as investigating
their contours, surfaces and textures thus making a structural pattern. Visual observation followed
by mapping is not a mere mechanical illustration of reality but active process where a cartographer
formulates reality consciously. That is why cartographic expressions contain a direct and potential
information. An investigation on a relationship between the language and thought is an interesting
problem as is the relationship between the language of cartography and thought.
The sign and meaning have their own autonomy. The sign is a sensual stimulus while meaning is a
complex of intellectual and emotional relations between a certain sign and subject, sign and sign
object and other signs of the same system and sign and measure in the process of studying reality.
Cartographic signs are monosemic, but there is also a possibility of their polysemic meaning.
All the cartographic signs are linked with meaning through associative and symbolic meanings.
Associative connections of signs and meanings are less investigated in the theory of meaning than
symbolic connections. In conjunction with them they formulate a special kind of signs called
symbols. A notion of cartographic symbol is used in cartography in various meanings with no
definite distinction between that notion and the notion of cartographic sign. In theory, symbols are
regarded as signs of a higher level.
The language of cartography has not evolved from the natural language but simultaneously with it
as its graphic equivalent. The language in which maps are constituted, drawn and written is
considered the language of cartography. It has its own structure, function and genesis. The structure
of cartographic language consists of a system of cartographic signs constituted as unity of sign
parts, identified through cartographic practice, with multidimensional and complex meaning. Basic
functions of the language of cartography, cognitive and communicational, are derived from the
system of cartographic signs.
Systematization of the structure of the language of cartography is achieved by unity and hierarchical
progression of universal, particular and singular characters of each cartographic unit. A unique
characteristic of each singular unit of cartographic signs is its multidimensional meaning, while
hierarchical progression of the unity is expressed in the shape and colour of cartographic signs.
Another organization of the language of cartography structure originates from scale (metric)
equilibrium of the system of cartographic signs, i.e. from metric scales.
Apparent (linguistic) meaning and interpretative (practical) meaning is another way of playing
communicational role of the cartographic language. In relation to reality, the language of
cartography is analogous, illustrative, but it also has all the elements of convention, i.e. of
agreement on in which way created signs will be denoted.
A connection between analogous and conventional interpretation of the system of cartographic
signs is established on the basis of rules called codes. The codes may be logical and esthetic. The
system of cartographic signs becomes complete when its logical and esthetic codes are defined. In
old maps, the esthetic code is a principal code. When mathematical projections were invented
esthetic coding gave place to logical one. Logical and esthetic coding is also applied in defining
relations between elements of signs in cartographic texts. By applying the mentioned codification
a relationship between the language of cartography and reflections of cartographer and mapped
object is established.
Application of the appropriate method, technology and procedure will depend first of all on the
topic by the appropriate map. Attention should be also paid to possibilities of the cartographic
method itself. The applied cartographic method which is also the essential scientific method in this
project understands and enables:
1) Spatial determination of elements of the human environment which is realized through:
a) Localization of phenomena and processes of the human environment through clearly defined
position of the same in the geodetic and geographic space. The spatial determination is the basic
advantage and the feature of the cartographic method so that every map of environment can also
be defined as the spatial indicator of arrangement of phenomena, elements and components of
the environment. Thus the highest form of informativeness - the spatial informativeness of the
map is achieved. First of all, the spatial determination is achieved through a geographic coordinate system, which exist on every map.
b) The reciprocal spatial determination of phenomena and processes in the environment is
achieved by the spatial correlation.
2) The chronological determination of phenomena, elements and components of the environment is
achieved in these ways:
a) By linking certain components of the environment to the term, time or period.
b) The time determination of phenomena in a time-measuring system and giving the age
determination to phenomena and processes (for example geological determination of age, time
determinations of duration of emissions and imissions, etc.).
c) Establishing the time series of changes in the character of the environment components thus
achieving the determination of time development and evolutiveness of phenomena and
processes of environment.
3) Real (substantial) determination of environment is achieved by codification of quantitative and
qualitative properties of milieu.
a) Quantitative codification is achieved by the established scale of values which can be found in
the map legend, then in the form of numerical indexes showing the size of phenomenon. The
quantitative determination can be also achieved by the size of the symbol or cartographic sign.
b) Qualitative determination of the process and phenomenon of environment is fulfilled through
establishing of differences. This can be achieved by means of a legend but also through an
overall cartographic display of reality.
c) The functional determination is achieved through presenting of functions of the environmental
components by a cartographic procedure.
Main task and purpose is to show by maps the so far changes, present conditions and relations,
tendencies, internal links and interactions of elements and processes in the system and syb-systems
of particular territory. It should show both chronological and horological (spatial) conception. The
chronological conception would cover three aspects: past, present and future. The spatial conception
would cover the existing and potential spatial differences.
By using cartographic methods supported by certain software, spatial relations and patterns of
elements can be identified with great accurate and reliability. That is enables coming to scientific
conclusions about complexity and further research of exploring territory (spatial system).
Today, with increasing speed of technological change, Thematic Cartography (Digital one) will
help students to get easier into twenty first century, which is century of computer communications
and virtual reality in many different fields of science, business and life itself.
Structure of Map Content
The structure of map content, in the unity of individual and general, can be found out through the
analysis by means of the dialectic dichotomy. The dichotomy of the map content consists in
dividing its content into: exposed content and the immanent content. The exposed content is
concretely, immediately and visually expressed on the map by an adequate cartographic method in
form of plasticity and of signs: it is ostensive and plastic. The immanent content is the intransic
property of the exposed content in the dialectic unity of diversity, many-sided connections and
contradiction of factors in the spatial development of mapped objects and phenomena: it is
constitutional and figurative. The immanent map content is divided into: the eductive content and
the productive content.
By analytico-synthetic method we can:
1) to distinguish the eductive contents as intrinsic factors, elements, magnitudes, indexes, etc. of the
mapped objects and phenomena and
2) to derive the productive content:
a) as relations, structures, intensity, frequency, dynamics, etc.;
b) to determine the division in zones, areas, tracts, regions etc.;
c) to found out the characteristics, trends, rules, laws and other deductions on spatial development
of mapped objects and phenomena and
d) on the basis of the exposed and immanent contents is drawn a new map, the contents of which is
further cyclically utilized as source of information.
Productive map content is newly created content in specific process of cartographic cognition of
spatial reality as a complex and dynamic system. With small scale maps, i.e. with bigger degree of
generalization, relations between exposed and productive contents are changing so that in exposed
content more and more weaves productive content with scientific conclusion and, at the same time,
exactness of eductive content is lower.
By dyhotomous analysis of map content it can be shown its content as unity of particular and
general, as well as dyhotomous comprehensive of map content as way of getting knowledge about
general in particular through that particular. That treatment of map content consider process of
making and functioning a different forms of cartographic information. The dichotomous property of
the map content constitutes the base for the systematic classification of its content. Dichotomous
treatment of the unity of map content conditions a special methodological approach to the map with
gradual conclusions: on the first degree by the interpretation method one learns the exposed content;
on the second degree by the exact methods one learns the eductive content; and on the third degree
by combining various methods one reaches the productive content.
A dichotomy of denotative (or explicit) and connotative (or implicit) meaning was presented along
with the contention that this dichotomy is not as discreate as often implied. Through repeated use,
connotation can evolve toward denotation.
Map has an advantage over the natural language, because for particular kind of information it is
considerable simple and much more perceptive. Application of signs gives map universality,
because it is comprehensible in its basic shape and it is not dependent of written language.
This multiplicity can help us understand how these signs operate in geographic perception and
reception, interpretation and opinion making, prognose and development of geocartographic culture.
A special feature of the language of cartography is the unity of a logical and esthetical code of
signs, sign systems and the language itself what makes cartography independent science.
Map of Natural Heritage
Cartography could be bridge for regional co-operation. We can work on projects, which would be
interesting for all countries in region. Some of them would be Map of natural heritage, Atlas of
environment, Touristic atlas, Traffic map (in sheets), Nautical atlas, etc.
Procession and organization of natural heritage are of special significance since they represent a
certain indicator of civilizational status and development level of a state. In particular, natural
heritage is thought of as a spatial entity with preserved nature together with its significant life forms
and environment. According to the definition, protected natural properties represent a preserved part
of nature with special values and characteristics therefore having continuous environmental,
scientific, educational, health and recreational, touristic and other significance. Because of that they
need special protection.
Protected natural properties, where protection and need for preservation, reconstruction and
revitalization of the existing state have a special priority, are an essential planning condition.
The foundations of the concept of natural resource protection are based on the scientific
valorization, which enabled categorization of resources according to uniform criteria. The main task
and aims of designing maps of natural heritage are graphic representations of present state analysis.
It is also a presentation of all-mutual bonds and correlation that may occur in the area of protected
natural resources in future. This categorization as well as the structure of content of natural heritage
protection improves the structure of a legend of a map of natural heritage protection and the map
itself.
The first type of classification relates to those categories of protection. All protected natural
properties can be classified into the following categories:
 First category – natural properties of extraordinary significance,
 Second category - natural properties of great significance, and
 Third category – significant natural properties.
Substantial characteristics of a property comprise authenticity and autochthony, representatives and
rarity, diversity (riches of natural phenomena), integrity, landscape attraction, age and preservation
of the property. The function and significance of a property are reflected through environmental,
cultural, historic, educational, scientific, developing and other aspects of the natural properties.
Evaluation of protected natural properties for the categorization is done taking into account of:
a) Characteristics of the properties,
b) Functions and significance of the properties,
c) Exposition to decay and destruction of the protected natural properties.
The second type of categorization relates to kinds of protected natural properties so that the
following categories of natural properties are available for display:
 National park, which represents a larger area with natural eco-systems of a high value
concerning preservation, complexity and biogeographic characteristics, with diverse forms of
indigenous flora and fauna, representative physical and geographic objects and phenomena and
represents an exquisite natural entity of national significance.
 Natural Park, which represents an area of well preserved of waters, air, soil, prevailing natural
eco-systems and without greater decay of the areas so that it represents a significant part of
preserved nature.
 Landscape of extraordinary characteristics, which comprises a relatively smaller area with
picturesque landscape characteristics, undisturbed primary values of the landscape and protected
area around a cultural property.
 Natural reservation, which represents a genuine or insignificantly changed part of nature with
unique composition and characteristics of plant and animal communities as parts of the ecosystem, meant for maintaining the genetic reserves.
 Special natural reservations, which comprise a landscape with one or more natural values that
need special protection, are expressed or natural phenomena that need to be observed or guided.
 Natural monument, which represents a natural object or phenomena, physically clearly
expressed and recognizable with representative characteristics and attractive appearance as well
as man-made botanic values with special significance.
The third type of categorization also relates to types of protected natural properties, but with the
following categories adopted according to the standards of the United Nations National Parks and
Protected Areas Commission:
 Category I – scientific reservations and areas of wilderness,
 Category II – national parks and equivalent reservations,
 Category III – natural monuments,
 Category IV – habitats and other governed areas (landscapes, regions) with wildlife, and
 Category V – protected landscapes (areas of maintained eco-systems).
In each of these five categories of protected areas, a property can be attributed special
characteristics for the recognition according to the international legislation. Protected areas can be
attributed two more terms acknowledged by protection conventions and programs:
a) World heritage – which can comprises cultural and natural properties, and under special
conditions can join together both cultural and natural properties, and
b) Biosphere reservations – which represent internationally recognized natural area, which is
governed so that all aspects of its maintenance and protection are displayed (monitoring,
instruction and education, research managing resources, etc.).
Protected natural property has more significance if it is unique, i.e. rare within its kind or for its
phenomenon. Natural property has to be a typical representative of its kind at a certain period of
time or in a certain area, and that it is protected in the sense of originality and when its geographic
diffusion is less. All established categories and kinds of protected natural properties have to be
revised and changed depending on new scientific knowledge and research as well as on the
condition they are in. And from that will depend a level of protection, which can be introduced to
the protected natural properties.
A map of protected natural heritage must follow an adequate information system that would
comprise all necessary data concerning each and every property. The Register of the Protected
Natural Properties is a main book in which all those data are written down. Together with keeping
the register, a database is formed through the automated data processing. The register should
contain the following data:
 Name and kind of the protected natural property,
 Registration number and document designation,
 Number and date of the document concerning the protection and categorization.
 Category and international category of the protected natural property,
 Place where the natural property is located together with geographic coordinates,
 Description of boundaries of the protected natural property,
 Short description of the protected natural property,
 Information of the owner and manager,
 Physical and legal changes on the protected natural property,
The following data are introduced in an update information system:
 Reports and papers written during the property research process,
 Cadastre data of the protected natural property,
 Reports and conservation, recultivation, overhaul, revitalization and similar work done,
 Archive and bibliography data on the protected natural property, and
 Photography review and data of the protected natural property.
Each natural resource should has a name and description, with area where it is located, its space and
borders, ownership, location in its nearly and wider surroundings, measures of utilization,
protection and development. A special attention would be paid to natural values of international
scope. For every protected, rare and endangered species there would be graphic, pictorial and
textual sections.
Since the map should be also produced in a digital form, it is possible to project it on a screen, to
combine it will other maps and to innovate their contents constantly. It provides both the graphic
contents and numerous pieces of information on the protected natural heritage to be presented.
Linking has enables simultaneous following of the visual performance and data on the elements of
the map contents.
Conclusion
Maps are communication tools with which humankind interacts with spatial phenomena, creating
them as analogues of the perceived world. Cartographic systems reflect scientific and cultural level
of society which produced them. Making maps and researching by them demand applying
cartography as science as well as a technique.
Mapping artifacts are powerful representations of reality with the double-side nature of all
technology. We use them to manipulate the way we relate to our world and they become a lens
through which we see our world. On that way map author and map user become closer than ever
before, because map user in particular moment become map co-author.
In information age is creating virtual reality systems which give new meaning to maps. Such
systems not only create virtual reality world from real GIS data, but may also visualize in real GPS
data to users of computer graphic representation from virtual reality world. On that way map author
and map user become closer than ever before, because map user in particular moment become map
co-author.
The last decade of the 20th century will witness a renaissance of cartography and cartographic
visualization will be a leading factor in this process. The concept of “mapping” is already being
extended into areas well beyond those with which cartography has traditionally been concerned. As
Hall said: ”The act of mapping, when it expands beyond its usual terrestrial and scale constraints,
plays a critical role in the process of scientific research and that mapping and visualization, which
are by nature non-linear, help to explain what is essentially a non-linear world in new ways”. He
illustrates this by considering a variety of topics at a variety of scales, from the subatomic to the
universal. The computer is the direct source of proliferation of data and the new ways of visualizing
it. The driving force, however, is not these new computer technologies but curiosity, exploration
and discovery. Cartographic visualization can this sense, take cartography forward to an exciting
future. [3]
Literature:
1. Kraak M.J., Orweling F.J. (1996): “Cartography – Visualization of Spatial Data”, Longman,
Dorchester, UK.
2. Ikonović V. (1994): “Significance of Cartographic Method in Researching of Geo-space”,
Bulletin of Serbian Geographic Society, Volume LXXIV, No 1, Belgrade.
3. Taylor F. (1994): “Perspectives on Visualization and Modern Cartography”, Visualization in
Modern Cartography, Volume two, Pergamon, Oxford, UK, pp. 333-341