WEBSITE DEFINITIONS DEVELOPMENT
RED = New proposed definitions for TMP site
perceptron
A binary feedforward neural network in which weightings within the network can
be adjusted to better produce a desired outcome. The perceptron is often used to
gain understanding about the natural process of learning.
Wikipedia: is a type of artificial neural network invented in 1957 at the Cornell
Aeronautical Laboratory by Frank Rosenblatt. It can be seen as the simplest kind
of feedforward neural network: a linear classifier.
http://www.cs.bgu.ac.il/~omri/Perceptron/
The perceptron is a program that learn concepts, i.e. it can learn to respond with
True (1) or False (0) for inputs we present to it, by repeatedly "studying"
examples presented to it.
The Perceptron is a single layer neural network whose weights and biases could
be trained to produce a correct target vector when presented with the
corresponding input vector. The training technique used is called the perceptron
learning rule. The perceptron generated great interest due to its ability to
generalize from its training vectors and work with randomly distributed
connections. Perceptrons are especially suited for simple problems in pattern
classification.
Our perceptron network consists of a single neuron connected to two inputs
through a set of 2 weights, with an additional bias input.
The perceptron calculates its output using the following equation:
P * W + b > 0
where P is the input vector presented to the network, W is the vector of weights
and b is the bias.
http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/Perceptrons.Estebon.html
A perceptron is a connected network that simulates an associative memory. The
most basic perceptron is composed of an input layer and output layer of nodes,
each of which are fully connected to the other. Assigned to each connection is a
weight which can be adjusted so that, given a set of inputs to the network, the
associated connections will produce a desired output. The adjusting of weights to
produce a particular output is called the "training" of the network which is the
mechanism that allows the network to learn. Perceptrons are among the earliest
and most basic models of artificial neural networks, yet they are at work in many
of todayís complex neural net applications.
association units – Units within a neural network that are connected, or associated,
to each other. Association units are often part of a larger neural network with a
larger scale function then can be determined between two units of association.
parity problem - ????
Wikipedia - the question of how many primes less than a given integer have an even (or
odd) number of prime factors. The problem of recognizing the formal language
consisting of bitstrings which contain an even number of 1 bits
http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/guessing2001/node4.html
The task requires to classify sequences consisting of 1's and -1's according to
whether the number of 1's is even or odd (Bengio et al. 1994; Bengio and
Frasconi 1994). The output neuron has a sigmoid activation function; the target at
sequence end is 1.0 for odd and 0.0 for even. Bengio et al. (1994) also add [-0.2,
0.2] uniform noise to the sequence elements.
http://terrytao.wordpress.com/2007/06/05/open-question-the-parity-problem-in-sievetheory/
If A is a set whose elements are all products of an odd number of primes (or are
all products of an even number of primes), then (without injecting additional
ingredients), sieve theory is unable to provide non-trivial lower bounds on the size
of A. Also, any upper bounds must be off from the truth by a factor of 2 or more.
single-layer perceptrons – A perceptron consisting of one input layer, and only one
output layer. There is only one output layer in which summation and nonlinear
activation can occur.
Wikipedia - consists of a single layer of output nodes; the inputs are fed directly to the
outputs via a series of weights. In this way it can be considered the simplest kind
of feed-forward network. The sum of the products of the weights and the inputs is
calculated in each node, and if the value is above some threshold (typically 0) the
neuron fires and takes the activated value (typically 1); otherwise it takes the
deactivated value (typically -1).
http://lcn.epfl.ch/tutorial/english/perceptron/html/intro.html
A single-layer perceptron network consists of one or more artificial neurons in
parallel. The neurons may be of the same type we've seen in the Artificial Neuron
Applet.
Each neuron in the layer provides one network output, and is usually connected to
all of the external (or environmental) inputs.
http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/shl9/roel2a/smits2a.htm
A "two-layer perceptron" may seem to be a more appropriate name for perceptron
consisting of an imput layer and an putput layer. Nevertheless, in accordance with
other authors (e.g. Haykin, 1996; Lippman, 1987), we have chosen to use the term
single-layer perceptron because the output layer is the only "real" layer in the
sense that it consists of neurons which perform the summation and nonlinear
activation transfer
back-propagation – or backwards propagation of errors, is used to calculate the
gradient of error in respect to the desired outcome and the present network of
modifiable weights, which is then feed back into the internal layers of the system so
as to adjust the connection weights in proportion to their contribution to the error.
Wikipedia - is a common method of teaching artificial neural networks how to perform a
given task., It requires a teacher that knows, or can calculate, the desired output
for any given input. It is most useful for feed-forward networks (networks that
have no feedback, or simply, that have no connections that loop). The term is an
abbreviation for "backwards propagation of errors". Backpropagation requires that
the activation function used by the artificial neurons (or "nodes") is differentiable.
the errors (and therefore the learning) propagate backwards from the output nodes
to the inner nodes. So technically speaking, backpropagation is used to calculate
the gradient of the error of the network with respect to the network's modifiable
weights. Often the term "backpropagation" is used in a more general sense, to
refer to the entire procedure encompassing both the calculation of the gradient and
its use in stochastic gradient descent
http://galaxy.agh.edu.pl/~vlsi/AI/backp_t_en/backprop.html
backpropagation algorithm has been worked out. The idea is to propagate error
signal  (computed in single teaching step) back to all neurons, which output
signals were input for discussed neuron.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O11-backpropagation.html
back propagation A supervised learning procedure for training feed-forward
neural networks to learn from test samples. A series of test cases, known as the
training set, are presented to the net, one at a time. The errors between the actual
and desired output of the net are propagated backward to the internal layer(s) in
order to adjust the connection weights in proportion to their contribution to the
error. The least mean squares of the errors is often used as the optimizing
criterion.
dependent variable - the variable being measured in an experiment defined in
relation to the manipulation of the independent variable.
Wikipedia -dependent variable is the observed result of the independent variable being
manipulated.
http://cnx.org/content/m13446/latest/
A dependent variable is a variable dependent on another variable: the independent
variable. In simple terms, the independent variable is said to cause an apparent
change in, or simply affect, the dependent variable
http://www.ncsu.edu/labwrite/po/dependentvar.htm
A dependent variable is what you measure in the experiment and what is affected
during the experiment. The dependent variable responds to the independent
variable. It is called dependent because it "depends" on the independent variable.
In a scientific experiment, you cannot have a dependent variable without an
independent variable.
http://psychology.about.com/od/dindex/g/dependvar.htm
The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured in an experiment.
For example, in a study on the effects of tutoring on test scores, the dependent
variable would be the participants test scores.
bilaterally asymmetrical – is contrast to bilateral symmetry, the tendency of two
halves to manifest differently or asymmetrically. Often talked about in terms of the
brain’s tendency to develop different functions in different hemispheres.
Wikipedia - In bilateral symmetry (also called plane symmetry), only one plane, called
the sagittal plane, will divide an organism into roughly mirror image halves
perceptual disorder – difficulties with sensory integration, and interpretation of
sensory stimulation; often seen as a processing disorder in which damage to
different aspects of the process may alter the quality of the disorder.
Wikipedia -a term used to describe difficulty with sensory integration, current diagnostic
nosology (Miller et al., 2007) uses the term sensory processing disorder to
describe this condition
http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/medical/perceptual_disorder.htm
Perceptual disorder: Cognitive disorders characterized by an impaired ability to
perceive the nature of objects or concepts through use of the sense organs. These
include spatial neglect syndromes, where an individual does not attend to visual,
auditory, or sensory stimuli presented from one side of the body.
http://www.gaianar.com/RFP/Injury%20and%20Healing/perceptual_disorders.ht
m
These illnesses affect how the victim perceives the world. For the schizophrenic
illnesses, this distortion is often the result of brain damage or a severe chemical or
hormonal imbalance (such as an overabundance of dopamine production in the
brain.) When the brain is electrically imbalanced, distortions to perception are
unavoidable.
http://www.learninginfo.org/perceptual-disorder.htm
A disturbance in the ability to perceive objects, relations, or qualities; difficulty in
the interpretation of sensory stimulation.
mobile robots – include autonomous, semi-autonomous, and remotely controlled
robots with the capabilities to move, or locomote within a specified environment
Wikipedia -mobile robots have the capability to move around in their environment and
are not fixed to one physical location
http://www.answers.com/topic/mobile-robot
an automatic machine that is capable of movement in a given environment.
mobile robots have the capability to move around in their environment and are not
fixed to one physical location.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O11-mobilerobotics.html
The branch of robotics concerned with movable robot systems that are able to
locomote within an environment or terrain. Mobile robotics and robots are mainly
used in research on navigation and exploration, with applications for autonomous
guided vehicles. Recent research in behavior-based systems has used legged
robots as mechanical analogues of insects and simple animals.
binary language – Code used in computers based on a base -2 system, or binary
number system, in which there are two possible states, on and off, noted as a 1 or a 0
respectively.
Wikipedia -binary number can be represented by any sequence of bits (binary digits),
which in turn may be represented by any mechanism capable of being in two
mutually exclusive states., represents numeric values using two symbols, 0 and 1.
More specifically, the usual base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of2
http://memory-alpha.org/en/wiki/Binary_language
is a term used to describe a basic form of computer code used by many cultures
throughout the galaxy. Binary language consists of ones and zeros, typically in
groups of eight or sixteen characters.
http://www.answers.com/topic/binary-code
binary code
Code used in digital computers, based on a binary number system in which there
are only two possible states, off and on, usually symbolized by 0 and 1. Whereas
in a decimal system, which employs 10 digits, each digit position represents a
power of 10 (100, 1,000, etc.), in a binary system each digit position represents a
power of 2 (4, 8, 16, etc.). A binary code signal is a series of electrical pulses that
represent numbers, characters, and operations to be performed. A device called a
clock sends out regular pulses, and components such as transistors switch on (1)
or off (0) to pass or block the pulses. In binary code, each decimal number (0 – 9)
is represented by a set of four binary digits, or bits. The four fundamental
arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) can all
be reduced to combinations of fundamental Boolean algebraic operations (see
Boolean algebra) on binary numbers.
computer science) A code in which each allowable position has one of two
possible states, commonly 0 and 1; the binary number system is one of many
binary codes.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/binary
bi·na·ry
–adjective
consisting of, indicating, or involving two.
Mathematics.
a. of or pertaining to a system of numerical notation to the base 2, in which each
place of a number, expressed as 0 or 1, corresponds to a power of 2. The decimal
number 58 appears as 111010 in binary notation, since 58 = 1 × 25 + 1 × 24 + 1 ×
23 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20.
b. of or pertaining to the digits or numbers used in binary notation.
c. of or pertaining to a binary system.
d. (of an operation) assigning a third quantity to two given quantities, as in the
addition of two numbers.
3. Chemistry. noting a compound containing only two elements or groups, as
sodium chloride, methyl bromide, or methyl hydroxide.
4. Metallurgy. (of an alloy) having two principal constituents.
–noun
5. a whole composed of two.
6. Astronomy. binary star .
7. Also called binary number. Mathematics. a number expressed in the binary
system of notation.
classical – definitive or standardized model serving as the archetypal to which the
new are compared.
Wikipedia -In general, these meanings refer to some past time, works of that time or
later works influenced by that time. Classical things are often seen as ordered and
part of high culture or a golden age, and contrasted to earlier or later things which
may be seen as chaotic, elaborate or emotional.,, in the arts, Classicism refers to a
high regard for classical antiquity.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/classic
adj
1. of the highest class, esp in art or literature
2. serving as a standard or model of its kind; definitive
3. adhering to an established set of rules or principles in the arts or sciences a
classic proof
4. characterized by simplicity, balance, regularity, and purity of form; classical
5. of lasting interest or significance
6. continuously in fashion because of its simple and basic style a classic day dress
noun
1. an author, artist, or work of art of the highest excellence
2. a creation or work considered as definitive
http://www.answers.com/topic/classic
Having the nature of, constituting, or serving as a type: archetypal, Characterized
by enduring excellence, appeal, and importance
adj.
1.
a. Belonging to the highest rank or class.
b. Serving as the established model or standard: a classic example of
colonial architecture.
c. Having lasting significance or worth; enduring.
2.
a. Adhering or conforming to established standards and principles: a
classic piece of research.
b. Of a well-known type; typical: a classic mistake.
3. Of or characteristic of the literature, art, and culture of ancient Greece and
Rome; classical.
4.
a. Formal, refined, and restrained in style.
b. Simple and harmonious; elegant: the classic cut of a suit; the
classic lines of a clipper ship.
5. Having historical or literary associations: classic battlefields of the Civil
War.
n.
1. An artist, author, or work generally considered to be of the highest rank or
excellence, especially one of enduring significance.
2. A work recognized as definitive in its field.
3.
a. A literary work of ancient Greece or Rome.
b. classics The languages and literature of ancient Greece and Rome.
Used with the.
c. One that is of the highest rank or class: The car was a classic of
automotive design.
4. A typical or traditional example.
5. Informal. A superior or unusual example of its kind: The reason he gave
for being late was a classic.
6. A traditional event, especially a major sporting event that is held annually:
a golf classic.
digital computer – An electronic computer that performs calculations and logical
operations with discrete quantities represented as digits, i.e. the binary number
system.
Wikipedia - a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data,
and provides output in a useful format.
http://www.answers.com/topic/computer
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system.
Computer capable of solving problems by processing information expressed in
discrete form. By manipulating combinations of binary digits (see binary code), it
can perform mathematical calculations, organize and analyze data, control
industrial and other processes, and simulate dynamic systems such as global
weather patterns. See also analog computer.
http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=digital+computer&i=41312,00.asp
A computer that accepts and processes data that has been converted into binary
numbers. Most computers are digital. Contrast with analog computer.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/digital+computer
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system.
An electronic computer in which the input is discrete rather than continuous,
consisting of combinations of numbers, letters, and other characters written in an
appropriate programming language and represented internally in binary notation
Compare analog computer
http://www.yourdictionary.com/digital-computer
a computer for processing data represented by discrete, localized physical signals,
as the presence or absence of an electric current: the most commonly used kind of
computer
http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861689060/digital_computer.html
computer processing data in binary form: a computer that stores and performs a
series of mathematical and logical operations on data expressed as discrete signals
interpreted as numbers, usually in the form of binary notation
classical computers – a basic machine that can be programmed to receive input,
store and manipulate data, and produce output in a standardized way.
Wikipedia -a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data,
and provides output in a useful format.
http://www.yourdictionary.com/computer/classic
(1) A programming interface in the PowerPC versions of the Mac OS X operating
system that supported earlier, non-Unix Mac OS 9 applications. Originally called
the "Blue Box," Classic was dropped in the Intel versions of OS X and later for
the PowerPC with the Version 10.5 (Leopard) of OS X. See Mac OS X.
(2) A Mac or Mac operating system prior to Mac OS X.
(3) A modernized remake of the original "hi-rise" Macintosh. The Classic came
out in 1990. See Macintosh models - early.
http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=Classical+IP&i=39748,00.asp
Classical IP
An IETF standard for transmitting IP traffic in an ATM network. IP protocols
contain IP addresses that have to be converted into ATM addresses, and Classical
IP performs this conversion, as long as the destination is within the same subnet.
Classical IP does not support routing between networks. The Classical IP-enabled
driver in the end station sends out an ARP request to a Classical IP-enabled ARP
server, which returns the ATM address.
symbol processing – sequential processing and manipulation of characters, as
exemplified by symbolic mathematics. It is often regarded in philosophical debates
having to do with the nature of human thinking and the process by which the brain
represents information.
Wikipedia - it implies both that human thinking is a kind of symbol manipulation
(because a symbol system is necessary for intelligence) and that machines can be
intelligent (because a symbol system is sufficient for intelligence)
http://www.cs.ucla.edu/~dyer/Papers/JETAI90DISTSYM/Jetai90DistSym.html
the symbols in SP systems have no intrinsic microsemantics of their own; e.g. SP
symbols are formed by concatenating ASCII codes that are static, human
engineered, and arbitrary. Such symbols possess only a macrosemantics -- i.e.
symbols are placed into structured relationships with other symbols, via pointers,
and bindings are propagated via variables.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/defdeny.jsp?url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%
2Fstamp%2Fstamp.jsp%3Ftp%3D%26arnumber%3D685988%26userType%3Dinst&den
yReason=-133&arnumber=685988&productsMatched=null&userType=inst
symbol processing is sequential
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O11-symbolmanipulation.html
symbol manipulation
The manipulation of characters rather than numbers, as occurs in symbolic
mathematics, text preparation, and finite-state automata simulation.
artificial intelligence – The ability of a machine or computer to perform behaviors
thought to require human intelligence, such as problem solving, object
discrimination, reasoning and optimizing via experience, and sensory modalities.
Wikipedia -is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims
to create it. Textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent
agents,"[1] where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment
and takes actions that maximize its chances of success.,, John McCarthy, who
coined the term in 1956,[3] defines it as "the science and engineering of making
intelligent machines.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artificial-intelligence
The ability of a computer or other machine to perform those activities that are
normally thought to require intelligence.
The branch of computer science concerned with the development of machines
having this ability.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/37146/artificial-intelligence
Ability of a machine to perform tasks thought to require human intelligence.
Typical applications include game playing, language translation, expert systems,
and robotics. Although pseudo-intelligent machinery dates back to antiquity, the
first glimmerings of true intelligence awaited the development of digital
computers in the 1940s. AI, or at least the semblance of intelligence, has
developed in parallel with computer processing power, which appears to be the
main limiting factor. Early AI projects, such as playing chess and solving
mathematical problems, are now seen as trivial compared to visual pattern
recognition, complex decision making, and the use of ... (100 of 8501 words)
http://www.answers.com/topic/artificial-intelligence
The means of duplicating or imitating intelligence in computers, robots, or other
devices, which allows them to solve problems, discriminate among objects, and
respond to voice command.
http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/dir-003/_0371.htm
The capability of a device to perform functions that are normally associated with
human intelligence, such as reasoning and optimization through experience. Note:
AI is the branch of computer science that attempts to approximate the results of
human reasoning by organizing and manipulating factual and heuristic
knowledge. Areas of AI activity include expert systems, natural language
understanding, speech recognition, vision, and robotics.
http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/cogarch0/common/theory/ai.html
Artificial Intelligence, in light of this definition of intelligence, is simply the
application of artificial or non-naturally occurring systems that use the
knowledge-level to achieve goals. A more practical definition that has been used
for AI is attempting to build artificial systems that will perform better on tasks
that humans currently do better.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/artificial+intelligence
the study of the modelling of human mental functions by computer programs
Abbreviation AI
AI – see artificial intelligence
CPUor central processing unit – Often referred to as the brain or the command
center of the computer, responsible for carrying out instructions and calculations
between hardware and software components.
Wikipedia - or the processor is the portion of a computer system that carries out the
instructions of a computer program, and is the primary element carrying out the
computer's functions.
http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/c/cpu.htm
Also known as a processor or microprocessor the CPU was first developed by
Intel in 1974 and is short for Central Processing Unit. The computer CPU is
responsible for handling all instructions and calculation it receives from other
hardware components in the computer and software programs running on the
computer.
http://www.inetdaemon.com/tutorials/computers/hardware/cpu/
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer--it is the
'compute' in computer. Modern CPU's are what are called 'integrated chips'. The
idea of an integrated chip is that several processing components are integrated
into a single piece of silicon. Without the CPU, you have no computer. The CPU
is composed of thousands (and soon billions) of transistors.
http://pcsupport.about.com/od/componentprofiles/p/p_cpu.htm
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is responsible for interpreting and executing
most of the commands from the computer's hardware and software. It is often
called the "brains" of the computer.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/central+processing+unit
The part of a computer that interprets and carries out instructions provided by the
software. It tests and manipulates data, and transfers information to and from
other components, such as the working memory, disk drive, monitor, and
keyboard. The central processing units of personal computers are generally
implemented on a single chip, called a microprocessor.
http://www.answers.com/topic/central-processing-unit
Component of a computer hardware system that combines control unit, storage
unit, and arithmetic unit. The control unit interprets the instructions given to the
computer. Internal storage is where the program of instructions is kept and where
data from the input devices are sent. External storage can consist of disk and
tapes. The arithmetic unit actually does the calculation required by the program.
algorithmic function – A subroutine or a group of instructions designed for a
particular purpose or task.
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Algorithm+function
Subroutine
A group of instructions that perform a specific task. A large subroutine might be
called a "module" or "procedure." Subroutine is somewhat of a dated term, but it
is still quite valid.,
a section of a computer program that is stored only once but can be used when
required at several different points in the program, thus saving space
A body of computer instruction (and the associated constants and working-storage
areas, if any) designed to be used by other routines to accomplish some particular
purpose.
A statement in FORTRAN used to define the beginning of a closed subroutine
(first definition).
symbolic (classical) computation - sequential processing and computation of
characters or representations, as exemplified by symbolic mathematics.
Wikipedia – On Theory of Computation The study of the theory of computation is
focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and
what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort
to answer the first question, computability theory examines which computational
problems are solvable on various theoretical models of computation
digital (classical) computer - An electronic computer that performs calculations and
logical operations with discrete quantities represented as digits, i.e. the binary
number system.
symbol-processing program – a program designed to process and manipulate
characters, as exemplified by symbolic mathematics.
function – An action or behavior for which a person or thing is employed, often
portrayed as a portion of code within a larger program or process particularly
suited for a specific purpose.
Wikipedia - explaining why a feature survived selection, or subroutine, a portion of code
within a larger program, performs a specific task, related to the selected property
of a system, is a structured representation of the functions, activities or processes,
an abstract entity that associates an input to a corresponding output according to
some rule
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/function
The action for which a person or thing is particularly fitted or employed.
the natural action or intended purpose of a person or thing in a specific role
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/function
any of a group of related actions contributing to a larger action; especially : the
normal and specific contribution of a bodily part to the economy of a living
organism
5 a : a mathematical correspondence that assigns exactly one element of one set to
each element of the same or another set b : a variable (as a quality, trait, or
measurement) that depends on and varies with another
7 : a computer subroutine; specifically : one that performs a calculation with
variables provided by a program and supplies the program with a single result
causal role – The influence one entity has on another entity, or the capabilities of
one entities to illicit a particular effect.
experimental method – “the method of choice” in scientific investigation, in which
controlled observations and measurements are taken to determine if changes in one
variable cause changes in another, leading to the further theoretical development.
Wikipedia - Experiment is the step in the scientific method that arbitrates between
competing models or hypotheses.[1][2] Experimentation is also used to test existing
theories or new hypotheses in order to support them or disprove them. refers to a
body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or
correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method
of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable
evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.[1] A scientific method
consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and
the formulation and testing of hypotheses.
http://www.holah.karoo.net/experimental_method.htm
The experimental method is usually taken to be the most scientific of all
methods, the 'method of choice'. An experiment is a study of cause and
effect. It differs from non-experimental methods in that it involves the
deliberate manipulation of one variable, while trying to keep all other
variables constant.
http://psychology.about.com/od/eindex/g/experimental.htm
The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if
changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on
controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a
hypothesis.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/experimental+method
the use of controlled observations and measurements to test hypotheses // a
method of investigation involving observation and theory to test scientific
hypotheses
Gestalt switches – A paradigm shift in subjective understanding leading to a new
conceptualization and perspective.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/188163
http://planetparadigm.wordpress.com/2009/01/09/gestalt-switch/
a scientist can’t operate in the old paradigm after having been converted to a
completely different way of conceptualizing the world through the new paradigm.
http://www.ilovephilosophy.com/phpbb/viewtopic.php?f=1&t=165625
he gestalt switch is just a mechanism by which we place subjectivity in a different
position relative to the object. It doesn't necessarily challenge the "objectivity" of
observations in science.
Empirical claims – Results of experimentation used to make a theoretical argument.
the problem of induction - The issue regarding making generalized inferences based
on specific events or particular instances, and whether knowledge obtained in this
way constitutes truth.
Wikipedia - the philosophical question of whether inductive reasoning leads to
knowledge .
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/induction-problem/#SomIndPar
The process of inferring a general law or principle from the observation of
particular instances
The problem of induction was, until recently, taken to be to justify these forms of
inference; to show that the truth of the premises supported, if it did not entail, the
truth of the conclusion.
Until about the middle of the previous century induction was treated as a quite
specific method of inference: inference of a universal affirmative proposition (All
swans are white) from its instances (a is a white swan, b is a white swan, etc.) The
method had also a probabilistic form, in which the conclusion stated a
probabilistic connection between the properties in question. It is no longer
possible to think of induction in such a restricted way; much synthetic or
contingent inference is now taken to be inductive; some authorities go so far as to
count all contingent inference as inductive. One powerful force driving this
lexical shift was certainly the erosion of the intimate classical relation between
logical truth and logical form; propositions had classically been categorized as
universal or particular, negative or affirmative; and modern logic renders those
distinctions unimportant. (The paradox of the ravens makes this evident.) The
distinction between logic and mathematics also waned in the twentieth century,
and this, along with the simple axiomatization of probability by Kolmogorov in
1933 (Kolmogorov, FTP) blended probabilistic and inductive methods, blending
in the process structural differences among inferences.
http://www.princeton.edu/~grosen/puc/phi203/induction.html
Hume's problem is usefully divided in two. There is first what I shall call
the descriptive problem: How do human beings form opinions about
unobserved matters fact? And then there is the normative problem: Are
beliefs formed in this way justified? Does someone who "reasons" as we
normally do really have reason to believe his conclusions about the parts
of nature he has not observed?
http://dieoff.org/page126.htm
For a brief formulation of the problem of induction we can turn to Born, who
writes: '. . . no observation or experiment, however extended, can give more than
a finite number of repetitions'; therefore, 'the statement of a law - B depends on A
- always transcends experience. Yet this kind of statement is made everywhere
and all the time, and sometimes from scanty material
pseudoscientific – Beliefs or theoretical claims based on flawed scientific reasoning,
often lacking supporting evidence and experimental validity.
Wikipedia - a methodology, belief, or practice that is claimed to be scientific, or that is
made to appear to be scientific, but which does not adhere to an appropriate
scientific methodology,[1][2][3][4] lacks supporting evidence or plausibility,[5] or
otherwise lacks scientific status.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/pseudoscientific
A theory, methodology, or practice that is considered to be without scientific
foundation. based on theories and methods erroneously regarded as scientific
http://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/pseudosci.html
A pseudoscience is a belief or process which masquerades as science in an
attempt to claim a legitimacy which it would not otherwise be able to achieve on
its own terms; it is often known as fringe- or alternative science. The most
important of its defects is usually the lack of the carefully controlled and
thoughtfully interpreted experiments which provide the foundation of the natural
sciences and which contribute to their advancement.\
Above: Johathan Hope: Theodorus' Spiral (2003)
http://biocab.org/Pseudoscience.html
Pseudoscience means false science. Pseudoscience is any scheme of assertions,
beliefs and methods, wrongly considered as scientific. It differs from antiscience
in the nonattendance against real science and the scientific method.