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Kanchipuram is the ancient capital of Pallava kingdom is a
renowned town dedicated to the presiding deity, Sri Kamakshi. It is one of
the sacred cities of Hindus. Kanchipuram situated on the Chengelput –
Arakkonam junction of the Southern Railway. Kanchi is 77 kms distance
from Chennai.
Kanchi is one of the seven holy cities of India, the other six being
Haridwar, Ujjain, Varanasi, Madhura, Ayodya and Dwaraka and
Kanchipuram has been a centre of great activitiy for religious leaders,
among them Saint Appar and Siruthondar, are famous saints. The city has
had glorious past, successively as the capital of Pallvas, the Cholas and the
Vijayanagar, although while under the Pallava, it had been invaded and
held for a short time by the Chalukyas of Badami and Rashtrakutas.
Kanchi is one such place. It has been a seat of learning from times
immemorial a center of spiritual activities and a place hailed as the temple
town with more than thousand temples. This is also the place, where Lord
Siva is seen in the form of Prithvi out of the five elements. Kanchipuram
has been a place enriched by ancient wisdom and further strengthened by
the existence of Kamakoti Pitham supposed to have been established by
Adi Sankara.
Hailed as Nagaresu Kanchi (city of cities) Kanchipuram
stands as a monumental testimony to India’s rich culture heritage and
ancient wisdom.
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Kanchipuram is sanctified by Divinity, nourished by Nature and
inspired by Spiritualism. The triple divine dispensation as manifest in the
forms of Moksapuri, Prthviksetra and Saktipitham, lends sanctity to the
place. Kanchipuram has always been a perennial source of knowledge
expounded by a galaxy of poet’s scholars, saints, and philosophers. The
sum total of wisdom acquired from Vedas and other sources needs to be
properly documented, preserved and analyses for the benefit of mankind.
Innumerable temples for various Gods of the Hindu pantheon are found
everywhere in towns and villages of Kanchipuram. Some of them are
wonderful monuments with excellent sculpture, architecture and murals.
Being closely linked with Mahabalipuram by geographical proximity
and historical ties Kanchipuram is imperative for a fuller appreciation of
the magnitude of Pallava architecture. In this city, we find specimens
of buildings that reflect not only a maturity of Pallava art, but the
heightened effect on these produced by the significant contributions of the
Vijayanagar and Chola rulers.
The Kanchipuram temples of Siva and Vishnu represent the best in
Dravidian architectural and sculptural traditions going back to the 7th
century A.D. to the creation of which Pallava, Chola and Vijayanagar rulers
had contributed substantially.
The name of Kanchipuram is associated with a cluster of
magnificent temple (and also gorgeously colored silks), constituting
74
virtually a complete record of the Dravidian architecture. The artistic
excellence of the temples, coupled with its sanctity as one of the seven
sacred cities of India, Kanchipuram attracts streams of visitors from the
nook and corners of the world through the Year. It has been a centre of
learning and culture for centuries. Buddhism and Jainism once flourished
here, side by side with Hinduism. Adi Sankara, one of the famous saints of
India, established his Episcopal seat (Kamakotipitam) here1.
3-1 History
Kanchipuram the city of temples, is one of the reputed Muktishetras,
played a dominant role on the political and cultural history of our county
from as early as the third century B.C. Hiuen – Tsang, the Chinese traveler
who came to Kanchipuram early in the 7th Century A.D. had seen and
described the stupa, which was built by Ashoka here. Even earlier to that
the pristine glory and importance of Kanchipuram is well attested to in the
puranic literature.
But an authentic and historical limelight of
Kanchipuram is first thrown only during the Sangam period. Perumpana
uppadai vividly describes Kanchipuram and its city plan, as compared to
the form of the Lotus2.
Kanchipuram was a reputed centre of learning, attracted students
from far and beyond, right from the earlier times. Patanjali, the great
grammarian of the 2nd Century B.C referred to the word "Kanchipuraka"
means one associated and hailing from Kanchi. From the mention of the
75
word "Kanchipuraka" it can be conjectured that the place Kanchipuram
would have been an intellectual centre, acknowledged as such by Patanjali.
Mayurasarman, the founder of the kadamba dynasty came to Kanchipuram
for higher studies in the reputed University called "Ghatika" Hiuen – Tsang
has praised the city for its intellectual eminence3.
Besides the Chola king Karikala, who according to the Tiruvalangadu
copper plates, rebuilt of embellished with gold the city of Kanchi, there is
yet another king whose association with Kanchi is revealed by the verse of
the Sangam work called Perumpanaruppadai.
It seems Kanchipuram
served as his Capital. During the Pallava regime (A.D. 4th cent – 9th cent.)
Kanchipuram functioned as a nucleus of all their activities. The temple
building activity was in full swing during this period. They have dotted the
whole of Kanchipuram and its according with cluster of monuments
numbering more than thirty.
Hiuen Tsang, who visited Kanchipuram
during this period, enumerates some eight Deva temples, and hundreds of
Sangharamas here4.
Kanchipuram, continued to serve as the seat of the royal power
though as secondary capital in the Chola times, owing to its earlier and
traditional prominence, Vijayalaya, the founder of the imperial Chola line
extended the Chola suzerainty over Kanchipuram. Though the centre of
gravity of the building activity was shifted to Thanjavur during this period.
Kanchipuram was not totally neglected, as is testified not only by the
76
inscriptions recording the construction and renovation of the temples, but
also by the existence of the Chola temples there5.
After Chola, the Pandyas, Hoysalas, Telugu – Cholas and other minor
dynasties has their sway over Kanchi, for a very short period. Finally,
Kampana (A.D. 1344-77) son of Bukka I of the Vijayanagar Empire
supplanted the Sambuvaraya chiefs of padaividy and established their rule
over Kanchipuram. During the Vijayanagar period many additions and
alterations were made to the already existing temples. Supplementary to
the construction of new ones.
Huge prakara, high gopura, pillared
mandapa are the characteristic features of the Vijayanagara architecture6.
3-2 General characteristic features of Pallava art
In the South old dynasties, the Cheras, the Pandias and the Cholas
declined and new ones appeared of which the chief was the Pallavas7. The
Pallavas patronized learning art and temple building both cave temples
and structural temples including monolithic rathas and stone carvings of
mythological scenes in Mahabalipuram. Their art is essentially religious8.
The temples were profusely decorated with carvings inside and outside
and their design was more that of monuments, than of buildings a temple
represented, so as to speak a fervent prayer to the deity9.
Pallavas temple constructions were quiet new in their style from
that of the temples exist prior to Pallavas. There were only temples
constructed of bricks and wood in the Dravidian type of architecture. It is
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very difficult to explain what makes the taste of one period differ from that
of another. A period of elegant taste is some times followed by a reverse.
But however good art and good taste are as often a matter of morality. In
all the fine arts, though there may be certain definite standards of artistic
merit, the opinion of respected judges undoubtedly changes with every
generation. The architectural programme also obeyed consideration of
political nature. For instance, the holy city of Mahabalipuram was founded
by Pallava Mamalla10.
When we remember the religious conflicts with which India was
torn at that time and the part of the rulers played in them, we realize the
importance which the kings and protectors of religion placed on religious
edifices11. Almost of our rulers contributed much to the development of
temple architecture and sculpture.
Each of the dynasties remarkably
rendered their sincere services to fine arts. Though there had been
political rivalry between the ruling dynasties of different region, there had
been rivalry in architectural level also.
The rivalry between the Pallava and Chalukya rulers was reflected
on the architectural level; the existence of two Kailasanatha one at Ellora
and other at Kanchi reflects this spirit of emulation.
Temples were constructed on different materials and in different
structures. But the ideas behind the construction are the same. The art of
ancient India, as we know it is mainly almost exclusively religious, because
78
secular works, to which frequent references are made in literature, have
not survived up to our own day. In fifty century the three religions of India
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism were in keen rivalry with one another.
Architecture, sculpture, and painting at that time attained a degree of
technical skill which combined with aesthetic sensitivity, gave the works
produced at that period, a harmony, a balance and profundity which place
them on the same level as the refinements of literature and the elevation of
contemporary thought12. The religious stir created by the holy saints in
Pallava period makes the rulers to pay more attention on art.
A detailed analysis on bhakti movement of the saints is dealt with in
the forthcoming chapter.
However, as the world book Encyclopedia
estimate, Dravidian art is seen in much of the architectural of South India.
Dravidian buildings are highly decorated and have much curious
sculpture13. The ancient period temples were small in size, but right from
the Pallava period both building technology and the ritual use of
architecture became increasingly sophisticated. Percy Brown observed, it
is observable at Mamallapuram, now almost obliterated still gave the town
a magnificent look14.
K.V. Subramanya Aiyer declares that "The period which followed on
the wake of Hindu religious revival of South India honored and invested
the religious heads with super human powers, witnessed the construction
and consecration throughout the length and breadth of the country of
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innumerable structural monuments, richly decorated with a profusion of
sculptural works entailing extraordinary expenditure, saw the enthroning
of the Hindu idolatry with imposing pomp and resounded with the
public discussions of abstruse problems by the quantificial heads who
were respected to the utmost degree"15.
He also explained that the
earliest of the monuments of South India, shaped by the hands of men, are
the rock-cut caves which the Pallava king Mahendravarman excavated
after his conversion to Saivism and dedicated to Siva, Vishnu, and other
Prance deities.
The
cave
temple
at
Vallam,
Mahendravadi,
Syamangalam,
Dhalavanur, Mandagappattu, Pallavaram and Tiruchirappalli owe this
origin to Pallava king.
The Pallava trained their skill in building
monuments also and they were highly successful in it16. A detailed table
is enclosed at the end of this chapter to show the Pallavas overall
contribution to temple architecture and sculpture.
3-3 Pallavas chronological contribution to religious art
The stone inscription in Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram name the
Pallava rules, recounting their great deeds but not much light is thrown on
their origin17. The inscriptions are in Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil probably
denoting the order in point of time in which the languages came in to use.
Tamil was made the official language of the realm by the Pallavas who are
80
believed to have come from the north18. Some scholars consider them kin
to the parathions19.
The main characteristics, however, as handed down by history are
undisputed a war light tradition, which enabled them to set up a strong
kingdom, ensuring a succession of Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas in the
north, and the rising Tamil Princes in the South, and an artistic
temperament, which found expression in a creative Endeavour that has
earned for Tamil Nadu a fame as imperishable as the rocks on which they
spent their skill20.
What is known of the Pallavas from the reign of Simhavishun 575 –
600 A.D.21 is authentic, unlike those particulars after often given going
farther back to 350 – 500 A.D. Vassals of the Satavahana empire22 became
independent early in the 3rd century and expended their hold over the area
from Kanchipuram to the Krishna. It was during the time of Simhavishnu,
who, on coming to the throne assumed the title of 'Svarishimha', known as
'Lion of the South23 that the Pallavas began the career of conquest that
brought Cholamandalam under their control. Among the sculptures at
Mahabalipuram is a relief of this doughty king with his two queens. He is
also known to have been the patron of Bairavi, the Sanskrit poet who was
the author of Kireetarjuniyam. Mahendravarman -I is also credited with
introducing the concept of cave temples excavated from solid rock. Most
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of monuments of Mahabalipuram, and certainly the rathas, are said to have
been carved during his reign.
The peaceful reign of Narasimhavarman - II 695 -722 A.D saw the
creation of the best of the early Pallava masonry temples, beginning with
the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram.
He assumed the title of
Rajasimha24. He greatly assisted in his endeavors in the field of art by his
queen Rangapathaka25. Nandivarman, 717 – 719 A.D. was responsible for
the other famous temple at Kanchi, the Vaikundaperumal temple.
Few cities rival Kanchi, the home of Pallava art and the seat of
administration, the wealth of literary, inscriptional and sculptural work.
The great Buddhist scholar Dharmapala belonged to Kanchi so did
Vatsyayana, the author of Nyayabhasya. The Pallavas were ardent Hindus
and Saivism and Vaishanava literatures flowered during their period in
what may be called a great religious revivalist movement. The study of
Sanskrit and the Vedas under the influence of Saivism flourished in Kanchi
in what must have been the final phase of Sanskrit culture and
Aryanaisation of the South26. Outside the country, under the impetus
which their rule provided, Sanskrit culture spread far and wide in South
East Asia27. Soon after them, Tamil took over in the Pallava region under
Chola – Pandya hegemony, and Telugu held sway under the Rashtrakutas
in the Andhra country to the north28. Indian history in both the north and
the south entered a new phase.
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Archaeological remains of the Pallava period are found extensively
in the kingdom, but the finest are in Kanchipuram and Mahabalipuram.
Worker of art so numerous and fascinating as those found in
Mahabalipuram could have been undertaken by a prince of the ruling
dynasty29. There are 14 cave temples, nine monolithic shrines, three
structural stone temples and four bas relief rock panels.
Scholars specializing Mahabalipuram have unraveled some of the
mysteries relating to who why and how. Two views are prevalent on the
origin of the monuments-one, that they were commissioned by one king in
particular, Narasimhavarman - I and the other, it was Rajasimha known as
Narasimhavarma - II who was solely responsible for all of them in the 8th
century30. Historians have not pronounced finally on the authorship and
the examination of the evidence goes on. Some archeologists have come
out with weighty arguments against the multiple authorship theory,
declaring that all these monuments were ordered by Rajasimha31. This
kings title, 'Atyantakama', which appear to refer to his achievement in
creating an "unlimited variety" of monuments and sculptures32. But it is
on this very variety of styles noted on the work that the other theory,
attributing the monuments to several rulers, rests. These variation in
style, it must be pointed out, are not obvious at first glance.
The Pallava rulers occupy an important place in the school on South
Indian temple-building that is famous throughout the world as Dravidian
83
style. A product of a thousand years of evolution, this style had its faint
beginning in the Pallava period and it was the Pallava rulers who gave it
direction and impetus.
It was on their foundations that significant
contributions were made later by the Cholas and Pandyas. The Pallava
rathas were the core of this style and this essential element of the temple
complex took root under Pallava patronage in the structures in
Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram.
This must have been proceeded
simultaneously with the declining importance of the Buddhist and Jain
styles in the region, south of the Krishna river in Mahabalipuram
itself, three phases of the architectural development can be traced
corresponding to the periods of the three eminent rulers, Mahendra
varman, Narasimhavarman - I and Rajasimha, reflecting progressive
degrees of refinement that can be discerned even by the lay man33.
3-4 Artistic style of the Pallavas
The vital artistic style of the Pallava period passed into history in a
process of absorption that censured the continuity of Tamil cultural
tradition34.
The Pallava contribution in the field of architecture and
sculpture was prolific and far-flung from Thirukalukundram in the north
to Trichirappalli in the South. It was a contribution made with rock as the
basic raw materials, as the transformation of the rocks of Mahabalipuram
testify. Where rock stood, figures were carved, sometimes single
sometimes in groups. Structures in the shape of mandapas were created
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out of boulders and rathas with all their ornamentation took shape as
sculptured monolithic. The artist's task was one of cutting, scooping,
carving, grinding and polishing, aided by a geometric conception of form
and features and the vision of the beautiful which is rare to come by
anywhere else in the world35.
The Pallava artisans were indeed the
masters of the art of stone.
Huge stone slabs cut out of rocks and boulders are still a great part
of South Indian temple architecture, to the evolution of which Pallava
artisans have made a significant contribution36. It is their chariot like
structures without wheels, which find an echo in the Deccan temples. The
seven rathas of Mahabalipuram have pillars, roofs, tapering tops and spire
like endings besides square of rectangular bases marking them as the
forerunners of the latter day temples37. In the storied upper portion of the
rathas, architects have noted the beginnings of the gopurams in pyramidal
towers characteristic of South Indian temples. The rathas were among the
many interesting monuments brought to light in the re-discovery of
Mahabalipuram at the beginning of 19th century38.
Besides the rathas the sculptured beauty is to be found in
Mahabalipuram in its pillared mandapams and wall panels. Mandapams
are cave like structure scooped from rocks. The panels on the rock surface
inside the mandapam and outside are art galleries in miniature. The
biggest of the bas relief is carved on a huge rock canvas out in the open
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and is legendary event of great significance commonly believed to be
Arjuna's penance. The Gangadhara panel shows Lord Siva holding back
river Ganga in his locks while the river hurtles down from the heavens to
the earth. In the Somaskanda panel Lord Siva is seen what his consort Uma
and son Skanda. The reposing Vishnu stretched on the coils of the snake
Adisesha Lakshmi on her lotus seat served buy Elephants, and an armed
Durga sallying forth to fight Mahishasura are other re-creations of
mythology in which the Mahabalipuram artisans revealed.
Art drew its inspiration from mythology because religion dominated
the Hindu life them as it does now39. The best in Hindu art and letters are
those that describe divine beings and depict their deeds. Literature was a
vehicle for the out pouring of piety. Songs were hymns in praise of Gods
and Goddess, dance a dedication to the divine and sculpture and temples
were a revelation of the highlights of mythology40. The themes of Hindu
temples and sculpture were almost always taken from the religious texts,
legends and traditions41.
3-5 Pallava’s religion in art
The aim of all art was to glorify God and Mahabalipuram sculptures
were re-creations of familiar mythological anecdotes on which the Hindu
mind longs to dwell the Govardhana text, Arjuna's penance, the Varaha
and Vamana episodes and the destruction of Mahishasura.
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The basic tenet of Hinduism is faith in the supremacy of the
Trimurthis i.e., three Lords known as Brahma, Vishnu and Siva
represented in these sculptures. Brahma is the creator and has no temple
dedicated to him Vishnu is the protector, and his devotees, the
Vaishnavities, Suriya as the destroyer of evil and his devotees are Saivites
like Pallavas.
Their consorts are respectively Saraswati, Lakshmi and
Parvati of the ten incarnations of Vishnu the most popular and lovable one
is krishnan the charming cowherd of Gokula who finds a place in the
creations on the boulders of Mahabalipuram.
The mythological themes in stone are a manifestation of the Pallava
faith in Hinduism. Buddhism and Jainism which were making in roads into
South India seemed to have suffered a set back.
Appar, the Tamil
Hindu Saint, is created with kindling a religious fervor in King
Narasimhavarman - I belonging to 600 – 630 A.D. which largely accounted
for the revivalist activity in the kingdom taking various forms42. The
sculptural representations of the Gods and Goddesses of Hindu pantheon
of both the Saivite and the Vaishnavite sects were re-created without
distinction, pointing to the influence of Nayanmars and Alwars, Sages who
had already brought in being a bhakti cult. Siva and Vishnu sculptures
abound in Mahabalipuram as well as those of Devi and Sakti, Buddhist and
Jain motifs styles of architecture are meager here and have been absorbed
in a totally Hindu mode of creation43.
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A delightful freshness, largely owing to the simplicity of its folk are
origins, marks the Pallava sculptural and architectural out- turn in
Mahabalipuram44.
The objects varying in size from the small to the
stupendous, are so many in number that the work must have gone on
unceasingly, depending probably only on the mood of the ruler and the
strength of his personal image-building impulse. The grace that abounds
in this works, the context of its antiquity – most of it is nearly 12 centuries
old is what matters, and is such as to evoke admiration. The motivation is
not clear enough to explain the magnitude of the activity. But that only
make the creations of art with religious background, the scale and style to
be seen in Mahabalipuram45.
They have created cave temples rock-out shrines besides masonry
structures. They have filled hill sides with bas relief's and panels populated
with figures of exquisite beauty. The representation of action is realistic,
and of movement, whether of birds animals or humans entirely natural.
They eye is compellingly drawn to the ideal proportions of the structures
hen out of rock as in the perfections of the Godly and human forms. The
spiritual theme dominates though the secular is not absent, both equally
well conceived. Kings and warriors, peasants and devotees, trials and
hunters figures in several panel.
The female figures of queen and
commoners impress with their loveliness. What is perhaps the world's
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oldest children's slide is also to be found here, close to the penance panel
and in stone too46.
It is the handsome figures of the God and Goddess of the Hindu
pantheon that the Mahabalipuram sculptures have mainly chosen to
provide. The incidents in which the pantheons were involved as well as
the postures, in which they have been commonly represented, are familiar
to every Hindu. These are the same representations to be found here, only
original in details her and there. The Trimurthis, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva
appear singly or with their consorts, Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati
respectively. Siva is often shown as Gangadhara containing the Ganga in
his locks, or as Somaskanda along with Uma and Skanda, or merly as the
phallic symbol in lingam in shrines.
Vishnu gives darshan in the
Anantasayana pose, stretching out with characteristic grace on the coils of
the many-headed snake Adishesha.
His Avatars as Krishan, Varaha and Vamana are presented. The
others omitted47. Lakshmi is seated placidly in the lotus. Durga in the act
of fighting a buffalo demon symbolizes the conflict of good and evil.
There are sculptures of demi gods and demons, beings floating in
mid-heaven water nymphs, ragas dvarapalakas and the mounts of Gods,
none of which does any violence to the senses of the beholder softened as
he is by an art suffused with the ideal of high purpose. Crude and coarse
touches are conspicuously absent; a certain refinement of approach
89
reigns supreme, eschewing the least suggestions of roughness 48. An art
induced ennobling experience is what the Pallavas had consciously aimed
at in Mahabalipuram49.
Radhkamal mukerjee defines, that the school of Mahabalipuram of
on the coast shows a slender, super human sublimity, delicacy and
sensuousness, and maintains a subtle and elegant balance between the
vigor and tension of movement, especially in serene flight and languorous
repose, worthy of gods and angles50. He has also emphasized that the art
of Mahabalipuram have superhuman sublimity and lyricism in cosmic
themes51.
While Mukherjee discussed the techniques applied in
Mahabalipuram art creations he points out, that, the Mamallapuram
techniques, the first, of organizing a whole boulder into the plastic
composition on a large scale over-stepping the shape and size of a regular
frame and second of fitting the composition to a rectangular panel or
recess, and setting the figures against the flat surface of the rock or making
them appear as emerging from within the informed rock "influenced not
only cave sculpture but also relief on temples wall in India and abroad"52.
The monuments fall into four groups in this cradle of Dravidian
temple architecture the monolithic, cave temples, sculptured scenes and
structural temples53. The monoliths free standing, cut out of solid rock,
known locally as rathas though without the stone wheels as found in the
sun temple at Konark, mark the beginning of South Indian temple
90
architecture. They are not built up, but cut – out of the rock in a process
that starts with hewing in the rough squaring up then passing on to cutting
inwards to form pillars and tiers of roofs, and ending with chiseling and
filling to create the ornamentation. The rathas except for the Draupati
ratha are characterized by a storied elevation of the roof. The walls are
broken into niches for sculptures on the ground floor and compact
pavilions run around the upper storey.
The Dharmaraja and Arjuna rathas are in square shape, have their
storied roofs capped by a dome, the stupi or stupika. The Bhima and
Ganesa rathas of rectangular shape have barrel like vaults with gables at
the two vital elements of the latter day temples, the pyramidal vimana
above the sanctum and the tall gopuram of the immense pile over the
gateway leading to the temple enclosure54. They are combined in a single
temple complex along with other elements familiar in the Pallavan
structure, such as the garbhagraha in front of it, the mandapam and the
porch with pillars. The courtyard and the huge enclosing walls came later.
The Shore temple formed by two symmetrical shrines joined each
other, each with its own tower and stupika, precedes the emergence of the
organic and unified concept found in the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi
with a walled court, gopuram, pillared mandapam and vimana. The more
developed form of it in the even later Vaikunthaperumal temple there. The
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Cholas unique contribution in later years came in the form of metal images
along with grand edifices of superior engineering skill55.
It is in constructing the houses of Gods that the greatest achievement
of Indian architecture has been witnessed during the ages. Reflecting the
basic nature of the South Indian people's communion with the God are the
grandeur of the Thanjavur 'vimana', the ornate Madurai 'gopuram' the
imposing 'Corridor' of Rameswaram and the exquisite 'Carvings' of the
Blur and Haliberd temples56. The regional variations in the structure of
the abodes of gods show the richness of the spiritual resources of the
notion as a whole that sustained a consistent temple building effort. Both
the utility and decorative aspects played their part in the evolution of the
temple structure as a temple also served as a place of refuge in times of
war, famine floods and pestilence.
Art such as dance and music and letters and literature have also
flourished under their auspices and within their precincts57. Stone built
shrines for the gods and goddesses had their beginnings in Aihole in the
Bijapur district of modern Karnataka during the Chalukyan regn between
450 and 600 A.D.58 this was the era when Gupta and Vaktaka shrines were
coming up in North Indian59. In the south the far-different Deccan style
was evolved in the Tamil country in Kanchipuram, Chidambaram,
Thanjavur and Trichirappalli with five dynasties making ample
contribution, the Pallavas of 600 – 900 A.D. Cholas of 900 – 1150 A.D.
92
Pandyan of 1100 – 1350 A.D. Vijayanagar of 1340 – 1565 A.D. and the
Nayaks of Madurai of 1600 – 1700 A.D.60 The Pallavas who laid the
foundation of this style were responsible for two of its forms, the rock –
cut and the structural. The technique of rock – cut shrines, in which they
distinguished themselves belong to an early period and falls into two
groups, the pillared halls and the monolithic shrines scooped out of huge
boulders, both widely exemplified in the Mahabalipuram monuments61.
The Mahabalipuram mandapams bear evidence of a progressive
refinement of technique traceable in three stages the reigns of
Mahendravarman of Mamalla and of Rajasimha62. The mandapams were
at first simple open pavilions excavated in rock with one or more cells
deeply cut into the rock wall the pillars being massive, octagonal shaft with
square upper and lower parts. A row of pillars only 7 – feet high stands in
the front façade with immense bracket. Soon roll cornices appeared above
the pillars along with decorative motif borrowed, probably from the
Buddhist style63. In the Mamalla period free standing monolithic shrines
cut–out of massive rock the rathas came into vogue. Further improvement
is demonstrated in the provisions of well ornamented slender pillars with
supporting squatting lions. What is more significant was the adoption of
'pyramidal' design with one pillared mandapam mounted on another.
There are ten mandapams in all each as tall as 15 to 20 feet with
pillars forming the most graceful part of the structure. The lion motif as
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the pillar base in some the curves of the melon capital, the lotus motif
above and wide abacus in others point to the trend towards beautification,
a principal aspect of which was the blending of sculptured figures with the
architectural frame work. The Durga and Varaha mandapams amply prove
this trend. Eight major cave temples with dvarapalakas on either side of
the entrance are often singled out as being in a more complete state than
the others.
These are the Kotikal mandapam dedicated to Durga,
Dharmaraja mandapam with three Sanctorums Adivaraha cave, varaha
cave, Ramanuja mandapam, the incomplete Mahishsuramardini cave
Trimurthi cave without mandapam and sanctorums and the five called
Koneri mandapam64.
The rathas fall into an entirely different category of architecture
though making their appearance along with the improved cave temples.
The Mahabalipuram rathas, in so far as they foreshadow the Dravidian
temple, mark a land mark South Indian architectural history. The five
Pandava rathas are objects of beauty, the Draupathi ratha being the
smallest and simplest in style and the Dharmaraja ratha is the biggest.
Scooped from a monolithic rock and having multiple storeys each is
different from the other. Wars not as much as weather, have caused the
damage that cannot however diminish the beauty of this petite unfinished
shrines. The missing items include numberless stupis on roofs at the
upper levels, the noses on the faces of human and Godly figures, and
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various limbs. The Chalukya invasions and battles in the region of Chennai
not far from Mahabalipuram during the period of Mamalla may have
resulted in some wanton destruction and cessation of work at the spot 65.
The second phase of Pallava architectural development to which
impetus was given by Narasimha-II of Rajasimha favoured the structural
type of construction with slender pillars standing on rampant lions66. The
style which came into prominence in the last quarter of the 7th century,
had its rudimentary exposition in the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram and
more substantially, in the Kailasanatha and Vaikuntaperumal temples at
Kanchipuram. Other features are large groupings of figures and increasing
number of miniature panels.
Whether there is a tendency deification of royalty in these sculptures
shrines and temples are better left to the perception of the beholder. It
would not however be surprising if he were to be inclined to hold that one
of the purposes of architecture, generally speaking, must have been to
glorify kings and queens their rule and their achievements in peace
and war. The impression is strengthened by the inscriptions on some of
the monuments67. They describe not only the monuments the religious
ideologies but describe the rulers and their work, not excluding their
gifts, and list their titles, which are understandably, couched in
superlative terms68.
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Royalty comparing itself of ten by implication some time even
directly to divinity is not uncommon. The Pallava rulers did not lack
behind in this respect. Claiming parity with the Sun, Moon and Indira and
mythological heroes like Arjuna, the monarchs did try to show of in their
own stone records. Some scholars have seen in the Somaskanda panels as
synthesis of the divine and the human, in other words, the trio in the
panels as synthesis of the divine and the human, in other words the trio in
the panels as representing either the divine family or King Rajasimha, his
father and mother69. The scope for assigning a double meaning to a
sculptured figure will be readily concerned by those familiar with the
literacy device called Dhavani, adopted so defectively by Dandin, the
Sanskrit poet of the time, in the Dvisamadanakavya, as pointed out by
Michael lock wood, a leading researcher in Mahabalipuram studies70.
Before we get into a detailed study of Shore temple, we must know
also the monolithic rathas has reliefs and some of the important sculptures
along with Pallavas structural temples in detail which will add adjunct to
this these. And thereby we can clearly understand how far the religious
and mythological ideologies reflect in art form during the Pallava reign.
3-6 The temple
Temples are an essential part of believer’s life and contribute
greatly to providing him solace and peace of mind. The ‘Murthi’ in every
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temple’s sanctum is full of grace and blesses devotees who offer worship.
Each temple has a hoary legend associated with it.
Temples are the sacred places where we have the privilege of
worshipping the Almighty in a form appealing to our thought and heart.
The omniscient and omnipotent God descends on to the earth to uphold
‘Dharma’ and protect the virtuous from the wicked whenever exigencies
arise. It is described as Avathar or incarnation. In these incarnations, the
Lord performs many miracles to manifest. His greatness and to establish
faith in the hearts of his devotees our ancestors have constructed temples
to commemorate these incarnations and also the perpetuate the faith in
God. The Deity is installed in the temple to enable devotees to think of the
greatness of God with undaunted faith that the deity installed there
sanctifies the place to shower blessings on the devotees for all times to
come. These temples are the sacred places of worship by means of which
our thoughts are purified. Purification of thought it the sure way to get rid
of our sins, egoism, and ensure purity of thought. Prayer protects us from
falling a prey to the impulses of ‘Maya’ and makes us worthy of seeking
liberation. Our ancestors have therefore laid stress on the importance of
temple worship as a means of mental peace. It is no exaggeration to say
that the pilgrims who visit Kanchi will carry the impression that those who
have a glimpse of the glorious temple of Kanchi and offer prayers, in this
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Mukthi shetra are indeed the blessed and are well on their path to reach
the goal of life.
Kanchipuram is a granary of art and architecture. It is also the birth
place of many saints and scholars. Sri Poigai Alwar, first among the
Alwars was born in this sacred city. Nayanmars like Sakkiya Nayanar,
Thirukurippu Thonda Nayanar, Iyadigal Kadavarkon lived in this city and
attained salvation. The associations of renowned religious teachers like
SriAdi Sankara. Sri Mooka Sankar and Sri Ramanuja and eminent Acharyas
like SriNigamantha Maha Desigar and Sri Manavalamamuni adds to the
greatness of this holy city.
Great devotees like Thirukachinambi and
Thirukachichiappa Sivacharya who are distinguished as the recipient of
God’s grace and the learned scholar Sri Parimelazhagar, repured for his
commentary of ‘Thirukkural’ dwelled in this city. In defense to the Prayers
of these noble souls affluent in God’s grace, the Almightly chose to perform
many miracles in this holy city of Kanchi. Kanchi is therefore described as
a theatre for God’s miracles.
Tamil Nadu is the name of a lyrical landscape which stretches from
lower Andhra Pradesh to the tip of Kanyakumari, its lands watered by the
Pennaitar, Kaveri, Noyyal, Amaravati and other minor rivers which flow
down from Mysore mountains to the north and the ghats of Kerala to the
west with the Bay of Bengal washing its Eastern Shores and the Indian
Ocean kissing it on its chin. Tamil Nadu is truly called the haven of the
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vibrant and live practitioners and legatees of the architectural heritage. It
is a land of art treasury. Prior to the first known standing monuments like
the cave-art of the Pallavas and Pandyas there was existence of structural
forms of temples in very early times Tamilnadu. It is however clear by
both direct evidence like 'Mandagappattu' record as well as indirect
stylistic evidence that before temples of durable materials were erected,
brick, mortar and timber were the media.
So it is obvious that, wood and brick had been used for constructions
of secular as well as religious edifices in the earlier times. A change in this
situation was clearly heralded, for the first times.
A change in this
situation was clearly heralded, for the first time in the early Pallava period.
The strong traditional association of stone with the dead, prevailing
among the people of the South must have been a deterrent to the adoption
of stone as material in temple building till about the close of the sixth
century and in carving images of gods for worship till the first half of the
seventh century.
As far as Kanchipuram is concerned, though we do not have any
material evidence to show the existence of the monuments prior to the
Pallava period, we have a vivid word picture of it in the Sangam literature.
Mahendravarman - I, was really a Vichitrachitta (inventive or
curious minded) who initiated the art of scooping out the rock for the
abodes of Hindu deities, dotted in the suburb of Kanchipuram with many
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such creations. Materially speaking we do not have any temple built by
Mahendravarman - I in Kanchipuram. But a pillar found in the ruined
mandapa near the thousand pillared mandapa in the third prakara of the
Ekambareswara temple has an inscription in Pallava grantha characters of
the 7th century A.D. which gives various birudas of Mahendravarman - I
(A.D. 580-630). This pillar must have evidently formed part of a structural
temple of the time of Mahendravarman - I, probably built in the area.
The reign of Narasimhavarman - II, Rajasimha (A.D. 690-800) who
bestowed his wealth to temples and Brahman as was popular in many
respects. For art and architecture, this fairly sustained and peaceful
reign was epoch making. In the sense that structural temples in stones
were reared up for the first time an extensive scale. There are six or
seven temples built at Kanchipuram besides four major temples at
Mamallapuram and one more at Panamalai, during his rule.
Now let us
see the Kanchipuram Pallava’s temple.
3-7 Kailasanatha temple
The Kailasanatha is the largest temple complex built by Rajasimha
and added to by his son Mahendravarman - III in his father's life time. The
main vimana of the Rajasimheswara is a typical Dravidian Style of square
sikara type with four tiers, facing east, and its aditala is integrated with
seven abutting sub-shrines, square ones in the four corners and oblong
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ones on the three sides on the diagonal and cardinal axial. All the sub
shrines have independent entrances and enshrined icons.
The main vimana has a high adhisthana with moldings and excellent
ornamentation. The Jagatai position of the adhisthana is embellished with
friezes of bhutas, some with animal and some with demon faces. They are
depicted in various poses of dance and merriment. The tripatta kumuda
found over the Jagatai in the adhisthana is also exquisitely carved with
various ornamentations. The wall of the temple has been adorned with
vyala based plasters.
Unlike the sculptures defined only in the cardinal
niches, the whole wall has been crowded with number of beautiful
sculptures making Kailasanatha temple as a veritable treasure house of
saivite Iconographic forms. This is the richest of all Pallavas shrines in
terms of figural decoration71.
The first and third tala has the usual hara with karnakutas and
bhadrasalas, but the second tala has panjaras in addition to that, a pattern
met with for the first time. The fourth tala has bull figures at the corners.
The octagonal griva shows figures of Siva Dakahinamurthy, Vishnu and
Brahma on the East, South West and North directions respectively. The
sikara has Mahanasis on all eight of its faces72.
The garbhagraha has a Somaskanda panel on its rear wall obscured
partially from view by the centrally placed eight foot prismatic dharalinga
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of black stone characteristic of Rajashimhas's time, in which such Lingas
seem to have been introduced73.
In front of the main vimana there is a detached mandapa known as
Rajasimha mandapa. It is flat topped, with cantoning walls at the corners
and pair of pillars at the intermediate openings of its four faces and with
more such pillars in rows inside.
Dvarapalakas appear in niches on
the east, Lakshmi and Saraswathi on the south and Durga and Jyestha on
the north74.
Standing in front in the same axial line is the Mahendravarman - III
in his scheme of elaboration of his father's temple unit. It is a two tier
vimana with wagon vaulted roof like sikhara known technically as sala
sikara. It is also constructed in sandstone except the upana and Pattika of
the adhisthana which is made out of granite slabs. This vimana contains a
Somaskanda panel on its rear wall and a prismatic Dharalinga of basalt in
the centre of the floor of the sanctorum75.
Another interesting feature of the Kailasanatha complex is the fiftyeighth sub-shrine surrounding the main Rajasimheswara, forming a
connected cloister like chain found the inner face of the prakara wall. All
the sub shrines are of (except the two coming opposites the north south
median axial line of the main vimana) two tiered square sikhara type,
enshrining mostly the form of Siva either in painting or in bas relifs. The
two exceptions are two tiered Nagara vimanas with wagon top roofs
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dedicated to Vishnu and Brahma. The external walls of these parivara
shrines of the malika contain a verity of sculptures both Saivite and
Vaishnavite of varied iconography and plastic art. The sculpture includes
the Dikpalas, Ganesa, Saptamatrika, Chandesa and other parivara deities76.
In front of the kailasanatha complex stands a row of dedicatory
shrines of memorial vimanas, six to the left and two to the right of the
main gopura entrance. The main objects of worship in these shrines are
Dharalinga, with the Somaskanda panel on the back wall. The exterior of
the shrines also depict various saivite themes like somaskanda,
Lingodbhava, Kalari, Yogamurthi, Gajasamhara, Tripurantaka, and
Dakshinamurthi. Hara and others two of the North rows of shrines were
gifted by two queens of Rajasimha the fifth in the row was clearly built by
Rangapataka the favourite queen of Rajasimha77.
3-8 Vaikuntaperumal temple
This temple is situated in the North east side of Kanchipuram. The
Vaikuntaperumal or Parameswara Vinnagaram is one of the magnificent
creations during Nadivarman - II reign. It is a typical Dravidian vimana
with four tiers, facing west with a frontal mukhamandapa, both
standing over a tall adhisthana. The temple complex is surrounded by a
cloister mandapa, externally walled by the prakara and internally
colonnaded. The narrow path between it and the temple is served as an
open circumambulatory path around the temple. The structure is built
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entirely of sandstone, the floor below the adhisthana and the pattika on its
top above being of granite slabs. The three tiers below are functional,
providing cells for three forms of Vishnu (sitting, standing and reclining)
the top tier merely symbolic, without any opening, is a solid cube and
provably added to beautify the temple in proportion to its base78.
All the three tiers have ambulatory passage, achieved by the system
of three concentric walls successively increasing its height one behind the
other, Up to the third tala, it has harmamala consisting of Karnatakutas,
bhadrasalas and panjaras, whereas the fourth tier is devoid of the hara. It
had formerly four lions at the corners, now replaced by four seated Garuda
figures, both the Lion and Garuda being appropriate cognizances of
Vishnu. The cloister wall which is of lesser height than the first tier has
haramala consisting of kutas and salas.
The interior of this wall has
depictions of the historical events which led to Nandivarma - II coming to
the throne. It intercity by echoes the various procedures followed during
the coronation of the king and also the contemporary social activities79.
The depiction of it historical event in the temple through initiated by
Rajasimha in the Shore temple at Mamallapuram, takes its perfection here.
The figures found on the vimana, ardhamandapa, walls and other places
makes the temple a museum for studying conscious of beauty and with
exquisite and seductive charm of the sculptures makes the art become
sensuous and sophisticated, receives the admiration of every visitor.
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Lord Vaikunta Perumal dwells under Mukunda vimana in a sitting
posture facing west. His consort is worshipped by the devotees with the
sacred name ‘Sri Vaikuntavalli’. There are three tiers in this temple. In the
lower, middle and upper tier, the Lord is seen in sitting, reposing and
standing postures respectively.
While circumambulating the main
sannidhi, we come across treasure house of artistic sculptures. The life
history of many Pallava Kings is portrayed here80.
If we reach the middle tier climbing up the steps, we see the Lord
reposing on Adishesha, facing west with his Lotus feet, pointing towards
the South.
Inscriptions here reveal the Pallava King Nandivarman
constructed this temple and also catalogue the names of other Pallava
Kings who undertook constructive works in this temple81.
The second historic Pallava temple in Kanchipuram is the Vaikuntha
perumal considered as the “body of God” was built in 770 A.D. by
Nandivarman - II Pallavamalla (731 – 796).
As Nandivarman given the
title of Paramesvara at the time of his coronation, the temple is also known
as “Paramesvara Vinnagaram” (the abode of Vishnu) as sung by
Tirumangai Alwar, the celebrated Vaishnava saint. The architecture of the
temple is unique with three sanctums on the three floors one over the
other and a concealed staircase leading to the upper floors. The three
sanctums enshrine Vishnu in three postures seated, reclining and standing.
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The walls are adorned with fifty Sculptures, besides the panels depicting
the history of the Pallavas, leading to the coronation of Nandivarman82.
Prof. Dennis Hudson of Smith College U.S who has done extensive
research on South Indian temple architecture, found correlation here with
the mandala scheme enunciated in the Bhagavata, explaining the doctrine
of chaturvyauha (four formations), he identifies the central in die sanctum
of the ground floor as Vasudeva facing west, i.e., the Earth, Sankarsna
facing north, the realm of human life, Pradyumna facing east towards
heaven and Aniruddha facing south the realm of ancestors. The sculptural
scheme matches the pancharatra concept, representing the six glorious
excellences and the 12 murthis (dwadasa – namas)83
On the ground floor, two covered pradaksinapathas surround the
sanctum while lower most sanctum and its ardhamandapa surrounded by
an open narrow ambulatory. The sanctum of the third floor represents the
concept of space time, depicting Vasudeva in the human avatar of Lord
Krishna its three tier tower is around 20m high adorned with miniature
buildings. The cellar, which house a statue of Vishnu, is preceded by a
mandapa with two bays of four columns. The building as a whole is
surrounded by a gallery, whose columns rise from the heads of rearing
lions, this colonnade leaves too narrow a space for the spectator to be able
to stand back from the building and look at the tower. It was intended to
guide the processions of the faithful in their circumambulation. The walls
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of the gallery are covered in relief that illustrate the legendary battles
between the Pallavas and their neighbours, the Chalukyas84.
It is on the walls of this platform the unique historical sculptures
have been carved. Beneath thirteen of them, all on the south wall, there
are explanatory labels in Tamil and eighth century inscription of Pallavas.
These panels depict the story of Pallavamalla’s accession to the throne
after a disturbed interregnum, which has different interpretations.
Numerous inscriptions are found in this temple relating to the wars
between Pallavas and Chalukyas. Besides these inscriptions, the battle
scenes of the Pallavas with Ganegas and Chalukyas are depicted in bas
relief around the main prakaram. The cloisters inside the outer wall
consist of lion pillars and are representative of the first phase in the
architectural evolution of the grand thousand pillar halls of later temples85.
The Brahmotsavam of this temple is celebrated in the asterism
Punarvasu in the month of Chitrai. Vaikunta Ekadasi Festival and Kaisika
Dwadasi Festival are celebrated in this temple popularly.
Pilgrims who visit this temple worship the Lord for cherishing the
desires and carry with them the satisfaction of having seen treasure of
sculptural beauty and the memory of the devotion of the mighty Pallava
Kings to Lord Sri Vaikuntanadha.
This temple stands as a monumental testimony to the splendid
architectural skills of those times. Those architects executed a complicated
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plan with perfection in tune with the then prevailing norms.
It is
maintained by HR & CE Dept. and taken over by the Archaeological Dept. of
Indian Government.
3-9 Mukteswara and Matangeswara temple
The Mukteswara also called Dharmamahadevi Iswaram, after the
name of Nandivarman - II queen, as revealed by the inscription found in
the temple and the Matangeswara also constructed during the reign of
Nandivarman though found in two different places in Kanchi are alike in
many respects.
Both are square, three tier Vesara type vimana with
circular griva and sikhara. These are the earliest extant temples to possess
a circular griva and sikhara though the models of these forms are
represented in the Bhima ratha, at Mamallapuram. Both the temples are
standing with their front mandapa on a raised adhistana, which is again
placed on upapita and the pattika over the adhistans, the whole temple is
built of sandstone.
First and second tiers, of both the temples have
haramala consisting of karnakutas and salas. The third tier is devoid of
haramala, but carries four nandis at the scorners86.
Sculpture on the walls of both temples is mostly sun relief. SriK.R.
Srinivasan is of the opinion that these may have been carved several years
after the original construction.
In the Muktheeswar temple the deeds of the Divine are wonderful,
and captivating. Sometimes God subjects His devotees to severe test with
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the intention of bringing their noble traits to light, to make the world
recognize their greatness and the superiority of their devotion. The places
where such divine acts of the Lord are exhibited considered sacred and
temples are constructed there for the Lord in commemoration of that
divine happening. Such divine sports are performed both by Lord Vishnu
and Lord Siva. Such sports by Lord Vishnu are described as Leelas and
those of Lord Siva as Thiruvilaiyadalgal87.
If Alwars have sung in praise of such Vaishnavite temples they are
called Divyadesams. If the four Saiva Saints known as Naalvar have sung
in praise of the Sivakshethras they are called padalpetra sthalangal the
sacred places which were hailed by one or all of the four saints – Appar,
Thirugnanasambandar, Sundarar and Manickavasagar. The noble devotees
graced by Lord Siva are known as Nayanmars. One such sacred place is Sri
Muktheeswarar temple in Kanchipuram and one such great devotee is Sri
Thirukuripputhonda Nayanar88.
Once there lived a washer man in Kanchipuram who was a devout
saivite with remarkable traits and virtue. There was no trace of egoism
whatsoever in him. He used to render selfless service to all devotees of
Lord Siva by guessing their bent of mind correctly with intuition and
fulfilling their immediate needs. Hence he became popularly known as
“Thirukuripputhondar”. His usual service was to wash the clothes of the
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devotees of Lord Siva who came on pilgrimage to Kanchipuram. He used to
do this service voluntarily without expecting any return benefit 89.
Once in winter season, Thirukuripputhondar met an aged devotee of
Siva whose lustrous body was completely besmeared by sacred ash. But
he was wearing dirty tattered clothes. Thirukuripputhondar was deeply
moved by this sight. He prostrated before the old man and requested him
to grant him the privilege of washing his robes for him. The aged devotee
of Siva had no spare dress to rely on and so hesitantly agreed to entrust
the job to Thirukuripputhondar provided he would undertake to handover
the washed clothes back to him before sunset so he would not be made to
expose himself to the biting cold of the winter night. Agreeing to this,
Thirukuripputhondar collected the tattered dirty clothes of the aged
devotee and went to the tank to wash them. He took great care to prevent
them well and kept them spread for drying in the bright sunshine89A
A few moments later, the sky was overcast and there was a heavy
downpour of rain. The unexpected non seasonal rain dampened the wet
clothes and disheartened Thirukuripputhondar. He simply stood gazing at
the sky. As it was drawing towards sunset, Thirukuripputhondar body
trembled in the cold while his mind trembled in fear at the thought of
committing the sin of breaking promise to the aged devotee.
The very thought of the old man shivering in bitter cold,
approaching the thondar for the washed clothes and his inability to
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handover the same made Thirukuripputhondar tremble in dismay.
Like
all noble souls who prefer to shed their lives rather than dishonor the
plighted word, Thirukuripputhondar decided to commit suicide by striking
his head against the granite stone used for washing the clothes. At that
moment, Lord Siva appeared before him to make a timely intervention and
reveal that the aged devotee was none other than Himself. Lord Siva
praised the noble qualities of Thirukuripputhondar and asked him to
continue, his noble service assuring him of mukthi or liberation at the end.
Lord Siva consecrated in the temple on the spot where this Thiruvilaiyadal
occurred came to be called ‘Muktheeswarar’ and Thirukuripputhondar
came to be known as Thirukurippu Tondanayanar90.
Pilgrims to Kanchi visit the temple of Sri Muktheeswarar and carry
with then the thoughts of the noble service of Thirukuripputhondanayanar
and the abundance of Grace of Lord Muktheeswarar registering the saying
in their mind that service to Humanity is the real Service to God.
3-10 Ekamparanatha temple
The Sri Ekamparanatha temple is of hoary antiquity. Beginning as a
small fane, it has grown over the centuries into a large one of over 12.14
hectares, with innumerable shrines, mandapa, gopuras and tanks. A Siva
Linga with 1008 small lingas, idols of Vishnu and Nataraja are highlights of
this temple. This is one of the most ancient temples in India and has been
in existence even prior to 600 A.D. This vast temple with high rising
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gopurams dominates the skyline of Kanchipuram. Siva is the presiding
deity here, worshipped as Prthivi Lingam, symbolizing earth, one of the
five primordial elements. Kanchipuram is thus known as Prthviksetra. No
separate shrine for Parvati exists here. Pallavas, Cholas and Vijayanagar
kings especially Krishnadevaraya contributed much to the construction
and development of this temple. The details of contribution of various
dynasties are as follows91.
Karikala Cholan constructed a mandapam for Ekambaranathar the
single mango tree in 190 A.D. The palace of Bappa was situated in front at
a distance of a kilometer, on the banks of Vegavati. Narasimhavarman - II
renovated the existing temple covering 30 acres with five prakarams.
Varador donated some villages to the temple Sarvatheertha kulam was
constructed near the temple bath. Sarvatheertha kulam is now at the
outskirts of the town. Krishnadevaraya built the main gopuram in 10 tiers
with 540 thittkal to a height of 188 feet, the tallest tower among the
South India temples92.
The name of the Lord Ekampara is derived from an ancient mango
tree of unusual properties with four branches representing the four Vedas.
Each leaf is of different shape, and each branch bears fruits that taste
differently. This tree also grants boons especially to ladies for bearing
children.
Although these mangoes were sold (each as high as rupees
forty) well at one time, today it is facing decay without bearing any
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fruits. Adjacent to the trunk of this hallowed tree lies a mini temple
to kumaraswamy known as Mavadi Kandam, the Skanda of the
sacred mango93.
The nomenclature of Ekampara is derived from “Kamba” or pillar, a
synonym for the pillar of fire or “Sthanu” a well known name of Lord Siva.
Further, Goddess Parvati once worshipped a Linga of earth in the bed of
streamlet the kampa, flowing near the Kanchimayanam, now a shrine in
the temple. To test her devotion, the Lord causes freshen in the river.
In her anxiety to save the Linga from being washed away, she hugged it to
her bosom. Delighted by the act Lord Siva married her. All the four
principal Nayanmars have sung about Lord Ekamresvara with Thevaram
songs. Idols for 63 Nayanmars along with the Utsavamurthis (processional
idols) are also installed here94.
The temple has five prakaras and a huge mandapa with thousand
pillars (only 616 survive today) near this were found some columns with
honorifics of Mahendra - I Pallava carved on them they are now in the
Chennai Museum. Elsewhere in the temple there is a shrine for Sage
Agasthya referred by King Mahendra in his well known Sanskrit farce
Matta Vilasa Prahasana. The temple’s later history is equally glorious.
Epigraphs record donations by the Cholas, (among whom Kulottunga - III
was
prominent
the
Telugu
Cholas,
and
the
Vijayanagaraking.
Krishnadevaraya built the massive outer gopura of nine storeys (58.5m
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high) in 1509 A.D. An image of him and another of his consort appear in
the gopuras95.
The temple was used as a fortress during the campaign which
culminated in Robert Clive’s famous defense of Arcot. There are signs of
hits by cannon balls on the main gopura. A part of the wall near this tower
was rebuilt in 1799 A.D. by Hodson the then Collector of Chengalpattu
district. There are some join reliefs also on this wall95A.
The glory of Lord Ekampareswara has been extolled by Saints
Tirugnansambandar, Appar, Sundarar and Manickavasagar known as the
great four or Nalwar in their divine songs, Muthuswami Dikshatar of the
trinity of Karanatik music and Pattinathar have also song in praise of his
glory. Details of this temple could be found in Periapuranam,
Kanchipuranam, Manimekalai and Matthavilasa Prahasanm. The temple is
very famous for its sculpture96.
The temple has the tallest tower in Kanchi with a height of 58
meters or 192 feet. This 9 tier Rajagopuram was constructed by Sri
Krishnadevaraya, the Emperor of Vijayanagar in 1509. Pilgrims coming to
Kanchi from Chennai via Poovirundavalli and Sri Perumpudur could see
this gopuram even from a long distance97.
In the first inner prakara, we come across the sannidhi of Goddess
Mahapralayabandhini. Adjacent to this, we have the processional deity as
Somaskandar. Adjoining this, we see the trunk of the mango tree which is
114
the sacred Sthalavriksha. The four Vedas are supposed to be its branches.
It is here that Katyayani worshipped Siva. This 60 feet tall tree is more
than 3500 years old. It yields fruits of four different tastes from its four
different branches. When Markandeya survived a deluge, this tree, itself a
manifestation of the Lord’s from, supported him. At the trunk of the tree,
Lord Siva with “Chinmudra” dwells as Somaskandar. Under this peetam
we have darshan of Kamakshi in penance, Lingodbavar and the Goddess
embracing the Lord Mavadiseva98. In the garbhagrha, Lord Siva is seen as
Prithivilingam, adorned by a silver Kavacham or covering. As the idol is
made of sand, it is only the pedestal of the lingam that is anointed
During the periods of Chola, Pallava and Vijayanagara Empires, Lord
Hudson, Collector of Chengalpattu District, under British rule in 1799 and
Natukkottai Nagarathars in 1900 carried out many construction works in
the temple. Recently, in 1979 and 2007 the Mahakumbabishekam was
performed.
With
the
blessings
of
His
Holiness
Jagadguru
Sri
Sankaracharya, Sri Jeyandra Saraswathi Swamigal, the 69 th Pontiff of Sri
Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam a number of kainkaryamas are carried out by
the devotees now and the along with the improvements carried out by the
H.R. & C.E. Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu and by the
general public99.
115
3-11 Piravataneswara temple
The Piravataneswara temple is built out of coarse sandstone. It is a
small two storeyed square based vimana of the typical Dravidian
architectural order. The walls have cantoning and intermediate pilasters,
based a rearing vyalas, characteristic of Rajasimha pillars. The first tala
(tier) carries a hara of four karnakutas and four bhadrasalas. The second
tala (tier) is devoid of the haras, the bhutas or nandis at the corner. The
adhisthana is raised over an upapitha with pilaster decorations and top
granite slab and consists of the upana. Jagatai, tripattakumuda kantha and
Pattika, which again is of granite slabs. The kantha, projected forward at
intervals below the wall pilasters, a feature rather rare in Rajasimha's
time, is truly the imitation of the basal wooder support for the broad based
and pillar bases100.
The shrine walls have niches (Devakosthas) with toranas above.
The devakostha to the South contains the Dakahinamurhti form, on north
and east are the forms of Siva with Brahma and Vishnu as attendants. The
ardhamandapa also has Devakosthas. The northern niche contains the
image of Durga, whereas the southern niche has the image of Gajalakshmi.
Ganesa also appears on the superstructure of this temple and was a new
creation of Rajasimha in the Pallava iconography or sculpture.
The
sanctum rear wall has a bas-relief of Somaskanda. Stylistically this temple
can be dated as earlier to all the temples of Rajasimha at Kanchipuram 101.
116
3-12 Airavateswara temple
Airavateswara temple, also built out of sandstone, has lost its
superstructure. The adhistana of thesquare sikara body resting on
upapitha with a granite pattika on the top.
Like other temples of
Rajasimha, the wall of this temple is also embellished with rearing vyala
based pilasters. The cordinal niches have the images of Brahma on the
north, Vishnu on the east and Dakshnamurthi on the south. An image of
Durga appears on the north ardhamandapa wall and a form of Siva is
found on the southern wall.
Interior of the ardhamandapa is also
decorated with panels like Kalari and a Natamurti of Siva. A Somaskanda
panel is carved on the back wall of the garbhagraha102.
I have enclosed table showing the important rock – cut caves,
monolithic rathas and structural temples of the Pallava periods in the
succeeding pages.
117
3-13 TABLE OF SHOWING THE IMPORTANT ROCK – CUT
CAVES MONOLITHIC RATHAS AND STRUCTURAL
TEMPLES.
1. ROCK – CUT CAVES
Sl.
No
Phase
1
I
Lakshitthan
Mandagapathu
2
,,
Panchapandaavar
Pallavaram
,,
3
,,
Uruthiravaleeshnar
Mamandur –II
,,
4
,,
Mamandur – cave
Mamandur –I
,,
5
,,
Kalmandapa koil
Kuranganilmuttam
,,
6
,,
Vasantheswaram koil
Vallam – I
,,
7
,,
Mahendravishnugragam
Mahedravadi
,,
8
,,
Sathrumallan koil
Thalavanoor
,,
9
,,
Avanipasanan koil
Seeyamangalam
,,
10
,,
Lalithanguran koil
Trichirappalli
,,
11
,,
Punchapandavar koil
Vilappakkam
,,
12
,,
Unifished Mandapa
Aragandanallur
,,
13
,,
Jaina koil
Siththannavasal
,,
14
,,
Sivan koil
Thirukokarnam
,,
15
,,
Monolithic mandapa
Thirukalukuntram
16
II
Kodikal mandapa
Mamallapuram
,,
17
,,
Darmaraja mandapa
Mamallapuram
,,
Name of the cave
Location
Style
Mahendravarman
Mamalla
118
18
,,
Narasimhan koil
Singapermal koil
Mahendravarman
19
II
Aranganathar koil
Singavaram
Mahendravarman
20
,,
Sigari palleeswaram
Melaicheri
21
,,
Unfinished small caves
Mamandur -IV
Parames
varavarman
,,
22
,,
Unfinished Big cave
Mamandur -III
,,
23
,,
Saluvankuppam
,,
24
,,
Adirana santha
mandapam
Vishnumandapa
Keelmaa vilangai
,,
25
,,
Sivamandapa
Vallam –II
,,
26
,,
Vishnumandapa
Vallam –III
,,
27
,,
Konerimandapa
Mamallapuram
,,
28
,,
Varahamandapa
,,
,,
29
,,
,,
,,
30
,,
Mahisasuramardini
mandapa
Thirumurthimandapa
,,
,,
31
,,
Unfinished Tigercave
,,
,,
32
,,
Unfinished cave –I
,,
,,
33
,,
Unfinished cave – II
,,
,,
34
,,
Adivaragan cave
,,
,,
35
,,
Ramanuja mandapa
,,
,,
36
,,
Yazhi cave
,,
,,
37
,,
Small Yazhi mandapa
,,
,,
38
,,
Mahishasuran cave
,,
,,
119
II
MONOLITHIC RATHAS
Sl.
No.
1
Name of the Rathas
Draupatha rathas
Location
Style
Mamallapuram
Mamalla
2
Arjuna ratha
’’
’’
3
Bima ratha
’’
’’
4
Dharmaraja ratha
’’
’’
5
Ganesa ratha
’’
’’
6
Valayankuttai ratha
’’
’’
7
Pitari ratha I - II
’’
’’
120
III. STRUCTURAL TEMPLE
S.No
Name of the Temple
Location
Style
1
Dhalagireeswarar Temple
Panaimalai
2
Siva Temple
Mamallapuram
3
Mukuntanayanar Temple
’’
’’
4
Shore Temple
’’
’’
5
Kailasanatha Temple
6
Vaikunthperumal Temple
7
Perumal Temple
Kuram
8
Vadamalleeswaran Temple
Orakadam
’’
9
Verrattaneswaran Temple
Thiruthani
’’
10
Parasurameswar Temple
Gudimallam
’’
11
Mukteswara Temple
Kanchipuram
’’
12
Madankesnaran Temple
’’
’’
13
Triparantakeswaran Temple
’’
’’
14
Iravadeswaran Temple
’’
’’
Kanchipuram
’’
Rajasimhan
’’
’’
’’
Nandivarman