Chapter 46 Notes (Behavior Ecology)
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Overview: Studying Behavior
Humans have probably studied animal behavior for as long as we have lived on Earth
As hunters knowledge of animal behavior was essential to ________________________
____________________are birds that have captivated people’s interest possibly because they are large and
their behavior is easily observed
Males and females cranes engage in elaborate ___________________ involving graceful dance-like movement
and synchronized vocalizations
The modern scientific discipline of behavioral ecology -- extends observations of animal behavior by studying
how such behavior is controlled and how it develops, evolves, and contributes to
________________________________________________.
Concept 51.1: Behavioral ecologists distinguish between proximate and ultimate causes of behavior
The scientific questions that can be asked about behavior can be divided into two classes
Those that focus on the immediate _______________________ and ____________________for the behavior
Those that explore how the behavior contributes to ____________________________________
Behavior:
A male African cichlid with erect fins.
Muscular contraction that raise the fins is a
behavioral response to a threat to the fish
territory
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Learning:
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_________________________, or “how,” questions about behavior
Focus on the _____________________________ that trigger a behavior
Focus on the _______________, physiological, and ____________________________ underlying a behavioral
act
Example: Red-crowned cranes (Figure 51-1) like many animals breed in the spring. The proximate question could
be: How does day length influence breeding of red-crowned cranes?
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Ultimate Question
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____________________, or “why,” questions about behavior
Address the ___________________________ of a behavior
Example: Why did natural selection favor this behavior and not a different one?
Ethology:
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Mid 20th-century ethologists developed a conceptual framework defined by a set of questions
These questions highlight the complementary nature of _____________________________ perspectives
Fixed Actions Patterns
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A fixed action pattern (FAP) Is a sequence of unlearned, ________________________ that is unchangeable
Once initiated, is usually carried to __________________________
A FAP is triggered by an external sensory stimulus known as a ____________________________
In male stickleback fish, the stimulus for __________________ behavior-- is the red underside of an
____________________
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When presented with unrealistic models
As long as some red is present, the _______________________ behavior occurs
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Proximate and ultimate causes for the FAP attack behavior in male stickleback fish
BEHAVIOR: A male stickleback fish attacks other
male sticklebacks that invade its nesting territory.
PROXIMATE CAUSE: The red belly of the intruding
male acts as a sign stimulus that releases aggression
in a male stickleback.
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ULTIMATE CAUSE: By chasing away other male
sticklebacks, a male decreases the chance that eggs
laid in his nesting territory will be fertilized by
another male.
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Imprinting:
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Imprinting is distinguished from other types of learning by a _________________________
A _______________________ in an animal’s development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be
learned
An example of imprinting is __________________________ following their mother
_______________________________ showed that: When baby geese spent the first few hours of their life with
him, they imprinted on him as their parent
There are proximate and ultimate causes for this type of behavior
BEHAVIOR: Young geese follow and imprint on their
mother.
PROXIMATE CAUSE: During an early, critical
developmental stage, the young geese observe their
mother moving away from them and calling.
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ULTIMATE CAUSE: On average, geese that follow and
imprint on their mother receive more care and learn
necessary skills, and thus have a greater chance of
surviving than those that do not follow their mother.
Conservation biologists have taken advantage of imprinting
In programs to save the _____________________________________ from extinction
Concept 51.2: Many behaviors have a strong ____________________________component
Biologists study the ways both _____________ and the ________________________ influence the development
of ________________________________
Behavior that is developmentally fixed Is called _________________________ and is under strong genetic
influence
Direct Movements
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Many animal movements are under substantial ____________________
These types of movements are called _______________________
Kinesis
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Kinesis:
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Sow bugs become more active in _______________________ and less active in _______________________
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Taxis
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Taxis:
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Many stream fish exhibit positive ___________________________ (rheos – Greek for current)
Where they automatically swim in an __________________________ direction
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Migration
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Many features of migratory behavior in birds have been found to be _________________________programmed
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Animal Signals and Communication
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In behavioral ecology: A signal is a behavior that causes a change in another __________________________
Communication:
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Animals communicate using ____________________________________________________
The type of signal used to transmit information is closely related to an animal’s _________________ and
_______________________________.
Chemical Communications
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Many animals that communicate through odors-- emit chemical substances called ______________________
When a minnow or catfish is injury an alarm substance in the fish’s skin disperses in the water, inducing a
______________________________________ among fish in the area
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Auditory communications
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Experiments with various insects have shown that courtship songs are under _____________________________
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Genetic Influences on Mating and Parental Behavior
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Research has revealed the ______________ and _______________ basis for the mating and parental behavior
of male prairie voles
Prairie voles are monogamous and help with
the nurturing of young, which is very
uncommon in mammals
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Concept 51.3: Environment, interacting with an animal’s ____________________________, influences the
development of behaviors
Research has revealed that environmental conditions modify many of the same behaviors
Dietary Influence on Mate Choice of Behavior
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One example of _________________________ on behavior
Is the role of diet in __________________ by Drosophila mojavensis (Fruit Fly)
Laboratory experiments have demonstrated that the type of food eaten during
_______________________________ influences later mate choice in females
Therese Markow and Eric Toolson proposed that the physiological basis for the observed mate preferences was
differences in __________________________ in the exoskeletons of the flies
Social Environment and Aggressive Behavior
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Cross-fostering studies in California mice and white-footed mice have uncovered an influence of social
environment on the aggressive and parental behaviors of these mice
Influence of cross-fostering on male mice
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Learning
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Learning:
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Learned behaviors range from very __________________ to very ______________________
Habituation:
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Spatial Learning:
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In a classic experiment, Niko Tinbergen showed how ________________________use landmarks to find the
entrances to their nests
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Cognitive map:
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Associative Learning:
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____________________________________ is a type of associative learning in which an arbitrary stimulus is
associated with a reward or punishment
Example: Pavlov dog experiment
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_________________________________ is another type of associative learning (also called trial and error
learning)
In which an animal learns to associate one of its behaviors with a ______________________ or
__________________________and then tends to repeat or avoid that behavior
Having received a face full of quills a young
coyote has probably learned to avoid
porcupines
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Cognition and Problem Solving
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Cognition :
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Problem solving can be learned by ___________________________ the behavior of other animals
Chimpanzees learning to crack oil palm nuts
by observing an experienced chimpanzees
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____________________________ and ___________________________ can interact to influence the learning
process of complex behavior
Concept 51.4: Behavioral traits can evolve by ___________________________
Because of the influence of ____________________on behavior
Natural selection can result in the_____________________________ of behavioral traits in populations
When _______________________variation within a species corresponds to variation in the environment, it may
be evidence of past evolution
Variation in Prey Selection
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Differences in prey selection in populations of garter snakes are due to _______________________ and are
evidence of __________________________
_______________________: behavior associated with recognizing, searching for, capturing, and consuming
food.
Garter snake will eat
different based on where
the snake is living (coastal
versus inland)
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Variations in Aggressive Behavior
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Funnel spiders living in different habitats exhibit differing degrees of ___________________ in defense and
foraging behavior
Aggressiveness of funnel web
spiders from different
environments. The arid
environments delay less before
attacking because of having less
food
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Laboratory and field experiments can demonstrate the _______________________ of behavior
Studies of Drosophila populations raised in high- and low-density conditions show a clear
__________________in behavior linked to specific genes
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Migratory Patterns in Backcaps
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Field and laboratory studies of Blackcap birds have documented a change in their ____________________
behavior
Birds placed in funnel cages left marks indicating the _______________________ they were trying to migrate
__________________________ orientation of wintering adult birds captured in Britain was very similar to that
of laboratory-raised birds
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Concept 51.5: ______________________ favors behaviors that increase survival and reproductive success
The__________________________ components of behavior evolve through natural selection
Behavior can affect ______________________________ through its influence on foraging and mate choice
Foraging Behavior
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Optimal foraging theory views foraging behavior as a compromise between the benefits of _______________
and the ___________________ of obtaining food
Such as the _____________________ or risk of being eaten by a ______________________ while foraging.
Reto Zach conducted a cost-benefit analysis of _______________________ in crows
The crows eat molluscs called ________________________ but must drop them from the air to crack the shells
Zach determined that the optimal flight height in foraging behavior-correlated with a fewer number of drops,
indicating a trade-off between ________________________________ (food) and _________________________
In bluegill sunfish prey selection behavior is related to _______________________________
In feeding on water
fleas the fish do not
feed randomly but
select prey based on
both size and distance,
tending to pursue prey
that looks largest
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Research on mule deer populations has shown that _________________________ affects where the deer
choose to ___________________
Optimal foraging theory predicts that
prey will forage in a way that minimizes
the risks of predation. The risk of
predation by mountain lions is lowest
in open areas and forest interiors and
highest in forest edges
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Mating behavior
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__________________________________, which includes seeking or attracting mates, choosing among potential
mates and competing for mates.
Is the product of a form of natural selection called _______________________________
The __________________________ relationship between males and females varies a great deal from species to
species
In many species, mating is ______________________________ with no strong pair-bonds or lasting
relationships
In _______________________________ relationships one male mates with one female
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In a system called ______________________________ one male mates with many females
The males are often more ______________________ and larger than the females
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In polyandrous systems, one ______________________ mates with many males
The females are often more ____________________ than the males
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The needs of the young are an important factor constraining the evolution of ____________________ systems
The certainty of paternity influences _________________________ and ________________ behavior
In species that produce ________________________________ of offspring parental care is at least as likely to
be carried out by _________________________ as females
Parental care by a male jawfish. Male
jawfish live in tropical marine environments,
hold they have fertilized in their mouths,
keeping them aerated and protecting them
from egg predators
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Sexual Selection
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In _______________________________ members of one sex choose mates on the basis of particular
characteristics
Example: __________________________
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Intrasexual selection involves ____________________________ among members of one sex for mates
Mate Choice by Females
Male zebra finches are more ______________________ than females, a trait that may affect mate choice by the
females
_____________________________ of female chicks on males with more ornamentation affects mate
selection as adults
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The ______________________________ in stalk-eyed flies affects which males the females choose to mate with
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Male Competition for Mates
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Agonistic behavior :
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Such competition may involve agonistic behavior (an often ________________________________ that
determines which competitor gains access to a resource)
An often ritualized contest that determines which competitor gains access to a _______________________
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________________________________ affects the mating behavior
In __________________________ of the same species that are genetically distinct
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_______________________________ evaluates alternative behavioral strategies in situations where the
outcome depends on each individual’s strategy and the strategy of other individuals
_________________________success of male side-blotched lizards was found to be influenced by male
polymorphism and the abundance of different males in a given area
1st (Orange throat lizard) most aggressive
and defend territory (More females)
2nd (Blue throat lizard) also territorial but
defend a smaller territories (Fewer females)
3rd (Yellow throat lizard) Nonterritorial
males that mimic females and use “sneaky”
tactics to obtain mating
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Concept 51.6: The concept of inclusive fitness can account for most __________________________ social
behavior
Many social behaviors are __________________________
________________________________ favors behavior that maximizes an individual’s survival and reproduction
On occasion, some animals
Behave in ways that reduce their individual fitness but increase the fitness of _________________________
This kind of behavior is called _____________________________________, or selflessness
In naked mole rat populations-- _____________________individuals may sacrifice their lives protecting the
_______________________ individuals from predators
The naked mole rat (nearly hairless and
blind) lives in colonies of 75 to 250 +
individuals. Each colony only has one queen
who mates with one to three kings. The rest
are nonreproductive males and females that
forage for underground roots and tubers.
The nonreproductive rats sacrifice their own
lives to protect their queens and kings
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Inclusive Fitness
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Altruistic behavior can be explained by ________________________________________the total effect an
individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables close
relatives to produce ________________________________
Hamilton’s Rule and Kin Selection
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Hamilton proposed a quantitative measure for predicting when ____________________________ would favor
altruistic acts among related individuals
The three key variables in an altruistic act are
12-
3-
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The ________________________________________ is the probability that two relatives may share the same genes
_________________________________ favors altruism when the benefit to the recipient multiplied by the
coefficient of relatedness exceeds the cost to the altruist
This inequality is called ____________________________________
Kin selection is the natural selection that favors this kind of altruistic behavior by enhancing
______________________________________ of relatives
An example of kin selection and altruism is the ____________________________ observed in Belding’s ground
squirrels
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Reciprocal Altruism
 ________________________________ toward unrelated individuals can be adaptive if the aided individual returns
the favor in the future
 This type of altruism is called _____________________
Social Learning
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Social learning forms the roots of culture
Culture can be defined as a system of information transfer through ___________________________or teaching
That influences the behavior of _______________________ in a population
Mate Choice Copying
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__________________________________________ is a behavior in which individuals in a population copy the
mate choice of others
This type of behavior has been extensively studied in the guppy Poecilia reticulata
Vervet monkeys produce a complex set of ______________________________ when they see a leopard, eagles
or snake
Infant monkeys give undiscriminating _____________________________ at first but learn to fine-tune them by
the time they are adults
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Humans Behavior
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No other species comes close to matching the social learning and cultural transmission that occurs among
____________________________
______________________________ is related to evolutionary theory in the distinct discipline of sociobiology
Human behavior, like that of other species is the result of interactions between genes and environment
However, our ___________________and_________________________institutions May provide the only
feature in which there is no continuum between humans and other animals