Chapter 9:
State, Society, and the Quest for Salvation in India
Themes: Throughout most of its history, the subcontinent of India is divided into
regional kingdoms, and not united under one ruler. This concept is difficult for students,
initially, because they know only a country that is synonymous with the subcontinent. The
classical Mauryan and Gupta empires are short but important interludes because they laid
foundations for commerce and religion throughout the subcontinent and into Asia that
persisted well past their dynasties.
For AP world history, there is no need to go into the details of regime changes. A
quick overview from Alexander to Chandragupta Maurya to Ashoka Maurya will suffice.
Ashoka set up a tightly organized bureaucracy; a central treasury; public works projects
such as irrigation systems and imperial roads; and centralized laws that were
communicated on inscribed pillars throughout the empire. Ashoka converted to
Buddhism and his imperial favor and sponsorship of monasteries and missionaries helped
spread the new religion throughout Asia. The dynasty collapsed shortly after his death,
and regional kingdoms replaced it.
The Greco-Indian kingdom of Bactria controlled the northern subcontinent for
two centuries, and then the central-Asian Kushans took the region over for the next three
centuries. These northern Indian kingdoms were central to the silk roads trade for five
centuries.
The Gupta dynasty controlled the region from 320-550 C.E., creating a tributary
empire that was much less centralized than the Mauryans, but nonetheless continued to
provide peace and prosperity to the northern areas. All of this is key to understanding the
importance of the region to the interregional trade networks of the silk roads. Without
peace, no one will travel the roads. With peace, people, goods, and ideas are easily
exchanged
The entrenched caste system, which by the classical era had subdivided into jati,
provides the backdrop to understanding the appeal of Jainism and Buddhism. They were
reactions against the power and influence of the Brahmins, as well as commentaries on
the declining relevance in some quarters of the agricultural-based rituals that the
Brahmins performed and on which their power rested.1 Women were allowed to become
Buddhist nuns, and along with Buddhist monks, they spread the religion throughout Asia
along the silk roads. Buddhism was also spread through the education available at
monasteries. In reaction to the appeal of Buddhism, a more “user-friendly” version of
Hinduism evolved that emphasized salvation thorough participation and responsibility
rather than through detachment from worldly affairs.
1
It is not really necessary that students know the Indian words for the various castes, other than “Brahmin.”
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Chapter 9 Reading Questions:
1. How did the Persian conquest set the stage for the emergence of the Maurya
Empire? About 520 B.C.E. the Persian emperor Darius crosses the Hindu Kush
Mountains, conquered parts of northwestern India, and made the kingdom of
Gandhara on the northern Punjab a province of the Achaemenid Empire. The
establishment of Achaemenid authority in India introduced local rulers to Persian
techniques of administration. In 327 B.C.E. Alexander crosses the Indus Valley and
crushed the states he found there. In 325 B.C.E. he left India creating a political
vacuum in northwestern India by destroying the existing states and then
withdrawing his own forces. The Magadha were set to fill the vacuum, but were
taken over by the Maurya.
2. What were five major accomplishments of the emperor Ashoka? Ashoka
conquered the last major independent Indian area, Kalinga. Ashoka ruled almost
the entire subcontinent under a tightly organized bureaucracy. He established a
capital at Pataliputra where a central administration developed policies for the
whole empire. He communicated his policies (imperial decrees) by inscribing them
in stone. Ashoka built irrigation systems and roads (1600km Highway).
3. How did the Gupta administrative practices differ from the Maurya? Ashoka,
Mauryan ruler, insisted on knowing the details of regional affairs. The Gupta,
however, left local government and administration, and even the making of basic
policy, in the hands of their allies in the various regions of their empire.
4. How did India fit in to the trade along the Silk Road? The silk road crossed
India on its way from Central Asia to China. Cotton, aromatics, black pepper,
pearls, and gems were the principal Indian exports, in exchange for which Indian
merchants imported horses and bullion from western lands and silk from China.
5. In what ways did the development of trade and manufacturing impact the
caste system? The growth of trade and proliferation of industries encouraged
further development of the caste system. As trade and industrial activity expanded,
new groups of artisans, craftsmen, and merchants appeared, many of whom did not
fit easily in the established structure. Individuals working in the same craft or trade
usually joined together to form a guild, a corporate body that supervised prices and
wages in a given industry and provided for the welfare of members and their
families. The guilds functioned as subcastes, known as jati, based on occupation.
6. What are the fundamental beliefs of Jainism? What has been its long-term
impact? Why did it never become as popular as other major world religions?
Jainism taught an ascetic doctrine of detachment from the world. Jains believed that
everything in this universe possessed a soul. As long as they remained trapped in
terrestrial bodies, these souls experienced both physical and psychological suffering.
The only way for souls to free themselves was from purification from selfish
behavior. Individuals underwent purification by observing the principle of ahimsa,
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or non-violence to other living things or their souls. The doctrine of ahimsa is
fundamental element in the both Hinduism and Buddhism. Gandhi and MLK Jr.
also used this doctrine. It is not as popular as other religions because it is too
difficult-or even impossible-for most people to observe.
7. What was the popular appeal of Buddhism? How does it compare and
contrast to Hinduism? Buddhists did not recognize social distinctions bases on
caste or jati so their message appealed strongly to members of lower castes. Because
it did not demand the rigorous asceticism of Jainism, Buddhism became far more
popular. Early Buddhist monks avoided the use of Sanskrit, language used by
Brahmins, in favor of vernacular tongues that reached a much larger popular
audience. Early Buddhists also recognized holy sites that served as focal points for
devotion. The stupas were also popular with the faithful. Another reason for the
popularity was the organization of the Buddhist movement. Buddhism and Jainism
sought to escape the cycle of incarnation without depending on the Brahmins, and
they both did not recognize social distinctions based on caste or jati. Buddhism,
however, did not require the rigorous asceticism of Jainism. Buddhists believed that
only through renunciation and detachment from the world could individuals escape
the cycle of incarnation, whereas Hindus believed the promise of salvation would
be granted to those who participated actively in the world and met their caste
responsibilities.
8. How did early Buddhism evolve into Mahayana Buddhism? How did that
help spread the religion? Three new developments evolved Buddhism into
Mahayana (“the greater vehicle”) Buddhism: Buddha was considered a god, the
notion of bodhisattva, and monasteries began to accept gifts as acts of generosity. It
spread quickly because it carried more people to salvation and was not quite as
strict. Educational institutions also effectively promoted the faith.
9. How did Hinduism evolve in India during this period? It generated new ideas
and attracted widespread popular interest. Hinduism drew on inspiration from the
Vedas and Upanishads and increasingly departed from the older traditions of the
Brahmins. They had four principles: dharma, artha, kama, and moksha.
10. Why did Buddhism eventually lose popularity in India? Hinduism displaced
Buddhism as the most popular religion in India. Buddhism grew remote from the
popular masses within India, and the monks did not seek to communicate their
message to the larger society in the zealous way of their predecessors, but
increasingly confined themselves to the comforts of monasteries richly endowed by
wealthy patrons. At the same time Buddhism popularity was decreasing, Hinduism
popularity was increasing.
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Historical Terms and Concepts to Know
Hindu Kush Mountains
Punjab
political vacuum
Chandragupta Maurya
Indus River
Ganges River
Ashoka Maurya
Patiliputra
Bactria
Kushan empire
tributary alliances
White Huns
monsoons
Indonesia
southeast Asia
caste system
varna
jati
Brahmin
Jainism
Siddhartha Gautama
Buddha
Four Noble Truths
Noble Eightfold Path
dharma
stupas
patronage
Ceylon
boddhisatva
“Arabic” numerals
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