Mexico After Independence
Demographics
The Mexican wars for independence killed approx. 500K  warfare also left
thousands disabled, orphaned, and widowed
Mexico also experienced slow population growth in the decades after independence
 population of 6.2 million in 1820, only 8.3 million by 1860
Immigration to northern and north-central Mexico increased (the population of
Nuevo León doubled and the population of Zacatecas nearly doubled), while outmigration in southern Mexico increased
Agriculture and Economy
From about 1810-1850, the number of rural ranches, haciendas, towns, and pueblos
increased  increased agricultural production and commercial activity (as these rural
sites provided the necessary resources for larger cities)
The importation of international industrial goods between 1820-1825 weakened
Mexican industry  as imports decreased, domestic industry recovered from about
1830-1845
The mining sector increased after the 1830s as a result of new deposits in northern
Mexico and technological innovations in older deposits
The Industrial Revolution began in Mexico in the 1840s, but industrialization was a
gradual process  industrialization would be realized by the end of the century
Commercial Activity
After independence, the Mexican government was in accordance with the principles
of free trade  free trade eliminated monopolies over international goods, a hallmark
of the colonial legacy
Free trade gave merchants and producers the opportunity to receive fair
compensation for their goods  free trade also benefited consumers as commercial
competition resulted in lower priced goods
Impediments to the Economy and Commercial Activity
In the period after independence, the national treasury was depleted  reduced
participation in the international free trade market and reduced funds for internal
administration
The Mexican government came to rely on foreign loans contributing to the national
debt
The weak Mexican government was unable to create a national economy (such as a
national banking system)  regional diversification of the Mexican economy
(merchants and producers restricted their economic activity to local markets, reducing
the risk of financial loss)
Social Dynamics in the Period After Independence
The electoral process of constitutionalism reduced privileges and gave greater access
to positions of responsibility to the various sectors of Mexican society (creoles,
mestizos, castas, and the indigenous)  constitutionalism increased social mobility
At the municipal level, the electoral process made the actions of elected officials
subordinate to the political voices of their constituency
The Structure of Mexican Government: The First Mexican Empire
Shortly
after independence, Iturbide organized a public demonstration advocating
that he be named emperor and he used the army to intimidate congress into naming
him emperor  in 1822 Iturbide became Agustín I, the first emperor of Mexico
The first Mexican Empire, however, was short lived as Iturbide was overthrown and
exiled in 1823  the Empire lasted only 10 months
The Structure of Mexican Government: The First Republic of Mexico
Local municipios were the basis around which Mexican states were created  in
1824, the federal Republica de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos was established
In the federal republic, each municipio “provided the essential mechanisms for the
election of the representatives to the federal Congress, the president, and the Supreme
Court justices.” (Mexico: A Brief History, pg. 129)
The Structure of Mexican Government: The Constitution of 1824
The creation of the Mexican Republic coincided with the creation of a republican
constitution
The Constitution of 1824 allowed for:
State sovereignty  states established their own constitutions, congress, and selected
their state officials
The federal government given the responsibilities of international relations and
defense of the nation from internal and external forces
Sovereign states curtailed the centralization of the Mexican government  the
elected representatives in the legislature (Congress) acted in the interests of their states
and local municipios rather than in the interest of the nation
The Structure of Mexican Government: The Constitution of 1824
As a result of the constitution, state congresses (elected representatives) held more
authority than state governors/officials; similarly, the federal congress held more
authority than the Mexican executive (president)  the constitution created an
unbalanced federal government
The Structure of Mexican Government: State Constitutions
The state constitutions established the requirements for citizenship status 
municipios, therefore, established their own criteria for citizenship
In general, citizenship criteria held that the male head of a family could qualify as a
citizen if he was able to provide for his family, contribute to the prosperity of the
community by paying taxes, and function in society in proper accordance to the law
In general, once citizenship was acquired a citizen was required to maintain
permanent residence and that his household/family contribute economically to the
local community
The Centralist Republic of 1836
Disconcerted with their diminished level of authority, political elites radical
transformed the Constitution of 1824
The Constitution of 1836 eliminated the federal structure of Mexican government
and established a strong central government  the centralist constitution greatly
reduced local and state sovereignty
Under the new constitution, power was centered in the hands of the Mexican
president, but several constitutional structures were implemented in order to offset the
increased authority of executive
The Constitution of 1836
The constitution abolished state legislatures and placed greater emphasis on the
national congress
Consequently, the president now selected state governors  state governors now
acted in the interest of the nation (or president) rather than in the interest of the state
and local municipios
Reaction to the Constitution of 1836
Not surprisingly, local municipios throughout Mexico opposed the new central state
 strong disconnect between federal, state, and local governments
 Opposition to the central government resulted in several local uprisings or
insurrections throughout Mexico  the disconnect between the various levels of
government made the suppression of local rebellions a formidable task
Reaction to the Constitution of 1836
The national army was the key to suppressing such rebellions and restoring order
Oftentimes, a military official or caudillo would intervene in local uprisings and
negotiate a compromise or consensus between federal, state, or local actors  process
known as a pronunciamiento or caudillismo
The success of a pronunciamiento depended on the support of the national army
These military officials or caudillos would utilize pronunciamientos in order to gain
access to high political office  Antonio López de Santa Anna held the office of
president 11 separate times between 1833-1855 through his skillful employment of
pronunciamientos
Throughout the 1830s and 1840s, the central government of Mexico was weak as
social uprisings and pronunciaminetos or caudillismo were ubiquitous
Texas
The territory of Texas is an example of a particularly devastating local rebellion
against the Mexican state  The Texas Revolution highlighted the weakness of the
central Mexican government
The Mexican state encouraged American settlement in Texas in 1820s  Stephen F.
Austin was granted permission to bring American settlers into Texas
American settlers were required to be Catholic, obey Mexican law, conduct business
in Spanish, and Americans were not allowed to settle within 60 miles of the
international border (slavery was permitted by the Mexican state)
Americans settlers made superficial promises to abide by the above stipulations
Texas
Immigration explosion: by 1827, over 12K American settlers in Texas (7K Mexicans
in Texas)  in 1835 there were about 30K Americans (8K Mexicans)
Under the federal constitution of 1824, the inhabitants of Texas enjoyed a high
amount of autonomy  Texas was virtually independent
Evidence of Texas autonomy: after the Mexican government abolished slavery in
1829, the internal administration of Texas preserved the institution
The Mexican Government and Texas
In 1830, the Mexican government prohibited further American settlement in Texas
 Texas residents protested the legislation, arguing that under the constitution they
had the freedom to manage their internal affairs such as immigration
The Constitution of 1836 further alienated Texas residents as their autonomy was
deprived
The Texas Revolution
In response to the Constitution of 1836, Texas residents revolted against the Mexican
state and declared itself and independent republic in 1835
The Republic of Texas appealed to the United States for annexation, but the US did
not want to become involved in an international conflict with Mexico  The US also
delayed the annexation of Texas because Texas would have been added as a slave state,
creating an imbalance in the total number of “free” and “slave” states potentially
resulting in serious political instability
The Texas Revolution
Mexican president Santa Anna personally led the attack on the Texas rebels
The Battle of the Alamo (March 1836) was a prominent skirmish in the revolution 
although Mexico emerged victorious, both sides suffered heavy losses; the Alamo
proved that no peaceful resolution could be achieved
Santa Anna was particularly vicious against the Texans (at the site of Goliad, Santa
Anna ordered the execution of 365 Texas prisoners)  viciousness resulted in US
opposition
In April 1836, Texas general Samuel Houston defeated and captured Santa Anna at
San Jacinto
The Republic of Texas
Following his capture, Santa Anna made two treaties with Texas, one public and one
secret
Public treaty: Mexico would not take up arms against Texas  signaled end to
hostilities between Texas and Mexico
Secret treaty: in return for being released and passage to Veracruz, Santa Anna
agreed to recognize the independent Republic of Texas
The 2nd treaty soon became public and sparked outrage in Mexican Congress and
the nation  Congress and the nation did not officially recognize Texas independence
Texas would remain independent republic for 10 years (The Lone Star State)
Texas, the US, and Mexico
In the United States, the 1840s was a period of westward expansionism  The US
was interested in acquiring the Republic of Texas and the Mexican territories of
California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Nevada, and Utah (essentially what is
now the western US)
The US negotiated the purchase of western territory with Mexico, but negotiations
broke down as Mexico refused to sell
The acquisition of Texas was problematic as Mexico viewed annexation as an attack
on national sovereignty
In 1845, however, the US added Texas to the Union
Tensions Between the US & Mexico
After
annexation, the US debated the location of the international border between
Texas and Mexico
The traditional boundary was the Nueces River
Republic of Texas and the United States, however, claimed that the border existed
along the Rio Grande (called the Rio Bravo in Mexico)  the border dispute amounted
to thousands of square miles of territory (including parts of Colorado and New
Mexico)
Border dispute led to increased antagonisms between the US and Mexico
On the Verge of War
The US would not go to war unless first attacked by Mexico
May 9, 1846: US president James K. Polk ordered troops into the disputed Texas
territory/border and the troops went as far south as the Rio Grande  battle ensued
between Mexican and US forces; events of the battle were reported to Washington D.C.
and were “reshaped” by president Polk
The US congress declared war on Mexico
The Mexican government invited Santa Anna to presidency again for defense against
the yankee invasion
The Mexican-American War
American offensive: The US launched attacks on three different fronts (Army of the
West, Army of the Center, and Army of Occupation)
Army of the West: commanded by general Stephen W. Kearny and it successfully
occupied the territories of California and New Mexico with little or no resistance;
Army of the West successfully occupied the Mexican state of Chihuahua
Army of the Center: commanded by general Zachary Taylor, troops marched south
into the Mexican states of Nuevo León and Coahuila; the US was victorious at
Monterrey and Buena Vista  Northeastern Mexico was under US occupation
Army of Occupation: commanded by general Winfield Scott, army consisted of 10K
troops and intended to occupy the Mexican capital
The Army of Occupation landed at Veracruz in March 1847  2-day bombardment of
Veracruz; Mexican casualties about 1K or 1500, many civilians killed
Santa Anna attempted to repel the Army of Occupation at Jalapa (Veracruz) and
Puebla, but unsuccessful
The Battle of Mexico City
The Americans entered Mexico City in August 1847
Mexico City engagements were the deadliest of the war
Battle of Churubusco: Mexican troops fought bravely against the larger and better
equipped American army
Battle of Molina del Rey: deadliest engagement of war, over 2K Mexican casualties,
over 700 American
Battle of Chapultepec: Final engagement of the war; battle took place at the castle of
Chapultepec  the Castle of Chapultepec was defended by 1K Mexican troops and
young army cadets
Los Niños Héroes: the Americans stormed the castle on Sept. 13  cadets were the
final defenders; the cadets are known as los niños héroes because they fought to the
death rather than surrender
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
After American forces occupied Mexico City a treaty was negotiated in February 1848
and named after a small town outside of Mexico City
The treaty set Texas border along the Rio Grande and gave the US claim to the
disputed Texas territory
The treaty also gave the US the territories of California and New Mexico
In return, the US paid Mexico $15 million and allowed Mexico to retain all
possessions below the Rio Grande; the US also agreed to take over $3 million in
damage claims made by US citizens against Mexico
The US also agreed to defend the rights and property of Mexicans who now found
themselves residing in the US
Consequences of War and Treaty
For just over $18 million, Mexico lost half its territory
War and treaty intensified stereotypes on both sides of the border; in particular,
American/US xenophobia in Mexico
Despite the many losses it caused, war, for the first time, helped to develop Mexican
nationalism  this nascent “national consciousness” was forever emblematized by los
niños héroes
War with the US did not end political tensions in Mexico  Mexico still not
politically consolidated
In an attempt to infuse the Mexican treasury with more funds, president Santa Anna
sold off more Mexican territory to the US  for $10 million, Santa Anna sold the area
of southern Arizona and New Mexico to US, known as Gadsden Purchase (1855); this
was Santa Anna’s final act as president, as he was soon deposed for final time