İngilis dilinin sait sistemi
“The system of English vowel phoneme”
mövzusunda
K U R S İ Ş İ.
Bakı 2008
1
CONTENTS:
1. Introduction _____ 3
2. The articulation of English vowel phonemes _____ 7
3. General principles of vowel formation _______ 16
4. Classification of English vowel phonemes ______ 29
5. Conclusion _________ 34
6. The list of Literature ______ 36
2
INTRODUCTION
The phonemes of a language are mutually dependent for a system
which is determined by phonetic and phonological cause. Each
phoneme possesses specific features which distinguish it from any
other phoneme of the same language. These specific features cause
phonemes to form group –correlations (e.g. long and short vowels). The
system of phonemes becomes stabilized in accordance with the
linguistic role of the phonemes of which it is composed. The following
conditions are very important:
1. the role of phonemes in phoneme alternations;
2. the phoneme distribution in words;
3. the role of phonemes in syllable formation.
The English vowel system consists of 20 vowel phonemes which
may beclassified according to the following principles:
1) The stability of articulation. We distinguish monophthongs and
diphthongs. There are 12 monophthongs and 8 diphthongs in English.
2) The position of the tongue in the horizontal plane. We
distinguish front, back, and mixed vowels.
3) The position of the tongue in the vertical plane. We distinguish
open vowels, such as [ ].[ ], [ ], close vowels such as [ ], [ ]. Various
intermediate positions of the tongue result in half –close and half –
open vowels.
4) Duration (quantity). We distinguish long and short vowels.
5) The position of the lips. We distinguish rounded (or labialized)
and unrounded (non –labialized) vowels. This principle is not much
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used in the English language, as only [
] and [
] may be said to be
distinguished by the position of the lips (the degree of raising the back
of the tongue is also slightly different).
Not all the vowel phonemes are equally free in their distribution. It
has already been pointed out that [
]can only appear in unstressed
syllables; while all the other vowels may be used both in stressed and
in unstressed positions.
The principle of duration is clearly expressed in the monophthongs
where it is phonemic: long and short vowels form a correlation. The
duration of vowels may vary considerably under the influence of some
factors; however, long vowels and short vowels (which differ in quality
as well) always have a difference in length in the same phonetic
context.
Short vowels are limited in their distribution: they are used in close
syllables only, while long monophthongs and diphthongs may be used
both in close and in open syllables.
All the English vowels can be met in many alternation series which
have various functions in the language, e.g.
1) They distinguish the form of verbs: e // ou
to sell –sold
to
rise –rose –risen
2) They distinguish parts of speech in words of the same root.
broad –breadth
nation –national
The [ ] phoneme stands apart from all the other vowels, for it does
not take part in alternations except in one case -
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in you –
your
where the alternation is used to change the form of words.
However the word “your” has variant pronunciations.
The [
] phoneme does not take part in historical vowel alternation
that have grammatical functions; however , it frequently occurs as a
member of alternation series that are used to distinguish different
parts of speech:
contrast [
part [
The [
] – to contrast [
]
] – particular [
]
] phoneme is widely used in phonetic alternations, for
example, to distinguish strong forms (form) weak forms of form words
in English:
from [
] –from [
]. This peculiarity in the function of
[ ] evidently indicates that this phoneme is comparatively “young”.
1) English vowels are more tense than the Azerbaijanian ones in
stressed syllables, while in the unstressed position they may undergo
reduction and become neutral or even be dropped: lesson [
together [
]
]. But Azerbaijanian vowels do not lose their quality
in unstressed position.
2)
English
vowels
may
differ
in
stability;
they
may
be
monophthongs and diphthongs, in which the organs of speech glide
from one vowel position to another within one syllable. There are no
diphthongs in literary Azerbaijanian pronunciation.
3) English vowels may differ in quantity according to two
principles: in monophthongs the quantity is phonemic is always
connected with the tenseness of vowels: [
5
], [
], [
], [
], [
].
These pairs of vowels differ both in quality and in quantity. In
Azerbaijanian the length is not phonemic; long vowels may occur in
Azerbaijanian in pre –stress position in some words of foreign origin;
they have no short counterparts which are used in the same position
and are therefore phonetic variants. Besides, Azerbaijanian short
vowels become long in final syllables of certain types of questions used
with the rise of tone.
4) English vowels are mostly non –labialized; of twenty English
vowels only five are labialized:
The rounded lips are tense, but very little protruded. The lips are
also very for the unrounded English vowels, especially for those which
are articulated with spread lips:[
] In
Azerbaijanian the lip –rounding may differ vowel phonemes. The
rounded lips are less tense and more protruded.
5) There are two central vowels in English: [
] and [
]. They are
absent in Azerbaijanian.
6) English vowels may be front retracted and back –advanced.
7) Another striking feature of English is the use of very short
checked vowels in closed syllables: [
], [
], [
8) The English back open vowels [ ], [ ] and [
], [
][
].
] have a vary wide
and long resonance chamber. There are no vowels in Azerbaijanian so
back, open and tense.
9) On the whole, during the articulation of English vowels the bulk
of the tongue has a more retracted position than in corresponding
Azerbaijanian vowels. The tongue takes a contracted dome –like shape;
during the articulation of Azerbaijanian vowels the tongue has a
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tendency to move forward towards the lower teeth, it also has a more
flat surface.
In English there is no vowel harmony, so typical for Azerbaijanian.
Vowels are sounds during the articulation of which the stream of
air coming out of the glottis does not meet any obstruction on its way.
When vowels are produced, we hear only pure voice without or with
very little voice. The quality of vowels depends on the shape of the
mouth cavity and on the shape of the opening.
PART –1
The articulation of English vowel phonemes.
The English front monophthongs are [
]; [
]; [
]; [
]. The first
two are different both in quality and quantity and the other two in
quality only.
All the English front monophthongs have the following common
features; 1) The body of the tongue moves to the front part of the
mouth leaving the back part free; 2) The middle of the tongue raised in
the direction of the hand palate; 3) The lip of the tongue is at the lower
teeth; 4) The lips are spread.
The English phoneme [
] is the closest of the front vowels. The
body of the tongue moves forward and the tip is at the lower teeth. The
middle of the tongue is raised rather high to the hard palate. The
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English vowel [ i: ] may have a diphtongized variant which glides from
a more open to a closer position.
The English [ i: ] is long and tense, it is always longer than [
] in
the same phonetic context. [ i: ] is the longest in final position a little
shorter before voiceless ones. The lips are spread and the opening
between the jaws is rather narrow. Thus the English [ i: ] is front, close,
unrounded, long and tense.
The English vowel [ ] is quite short. The body of the tongue is some
what retracted in comparison with [ i: ]. The tongue is raised a little
less than for [ i: ].
The tip is at the lower teeth. The lips are spread. Like all the
English short vowels it is lax. This vowel phoneme may be described as
front retracted, half –close, unrounded, short and lax.
When stressed, it always stands in closed syllables and it is checked.
In unstressed syllables it is even shorter and more lax.
The third English front vowel phoneme is [ e ]. It is short and lax.
The body of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth, the front part
is raised towards the hard palate a little less than for [ ]. The lips are
spread. The English phoneme [ e ] is checked vowel and is always
followed by a consonant.
Two variants of this phoneme may be observed in English; one
which is closer is heard before all kinds of consonants, and the other
which is used before the “dark” lateral sonorant [ l ] in such words as
[
] etc. The first variant is always half –close and the second
half –open. The English [ e ] may be a little lengthened in stressed
syllables when followed by a sonorant as in [
8
]
The English vowel phoneme [
] is the most open of all the front
vowels. The body of the tongue moves to the front part of the mouth
cavity. The tip of the tongue is at the lower teeth. The front of the
tongue is very little raised and the jaw is considerably lowered, so the
opening for the air is wide. The lips are spread. Though the English [ ]
is short, the muscles of the articulation organs are rather tense and the
vowel is rather clear and strong. Thus, the English vowel phoneme [ ]
is front, open, short and unrounded. The vowel [ ] is often lengthened
before voiced consonants especially before nasal sonorants. Such
lengthening is possible because there is no corresponding long
monophthong in English. [
] always stands in closed syllables and
very seldom in unstressed ones.
English back monophthongs are [
], [
], [
], [
], [
], [
]. They
differ from each other both in quality and quantity. All the English
back monophthongues have the following common features:
1) The body of the tongue is retracted leaving the front part of the
mouth cavity free:
2) The back part of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft
palate:
3) The tip of the tongue is retracted from the lower teeth.
The English phoneme [
] is the most open of all the back vowels.
The tip of the tongue is retracted from the lower teeth and the back
part is slightly raised in the direction of the soft palate. The body of the
tongue lies low in the mouth and the jaw is considerably lowered,
leaving a wide passage for the air between the tongue and the palate.
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Thus the English [
] is back, open, unrounded, long and tense. It
may occur both in open and closed syllables. E. g. father, start, part.
The English phoneme [ o ] is even more retracted than [
body of the tongue is drawn back more than for [
]. The
]. The lower jaw is
considerable lowered, the opening between the tongue and the palate is
very wide. The lips are slightly rounded, but not protruded. It is
termed the open lip –rounding. The English [ o ] is short and lax. Thus
the English is back, open, rounded, short and lax. It occurs only in
closed syllables and is a checked vowel. The English vowel [
]: not,
spot, pocket.
The English phoneme [
] differs from [ o ] both in quality and
duration. The body of the tongue is retracted, the back part of the
tongue is raised to the soft palate higher than for the short vowel [ o ]
and for the long [ ]. The distance between the tongue and the palate is
not so wide as for these vowels. The lips are rounded and a little
pushed forward forming an opening smaller than for [ o ]. The vowel
[ ] is long and tense, back, open, rounded. It may be used both in open
and close syllables.
The English phoneme [
] is some what advanced in comparison
with other back vowels. The body of the tongue is in the back part of
the mouth cavity. The part which is raised is more advanced. The tip of
the tongue is behind the lower teeth. The vowel [
] is short and lax,
back –advanced, half –open, unrounded. The English [ ] occurs only in
closed syllables. It is a checked vowel. For example: bud, bun, butter,
upper, etc.
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The English phoneme [
] is not fully back either. The body of the
tongue is retracted, but not so far back as for [ ] or for [ ]. The vowel
[
] is back –advanced, half –closer, rounded, short and lax. When
stressed, it must always stand in closed syllables and is checked: good,
look, put…
The English vowel [u:] is the closest of all the English back vowels.
The body of the tongue is retracted. During the articulation of [u:] the
tongue moves from a more advanced and open to a closer and more
retracted position. The opening between the jaws is narrow. The vowel
is fully long and tense. The English [u:] is described as back, close,
rounded, long and tense.
There are two central vowels in English: [
], and [
]. In
pronouncing the phoneme [ ]the central part of the tongue is raised in
the direction of the palate almost high as for [e].
The tip of the tongue is at the lower teeth. The opening between the
jaws is narrow. The lips are spread as for [i:]. The English [
and tense. Thus the English [
] is long
] may be described as central, almost
half –open, unrounded, long, tense. It may occur both in open and
closed syllables.
The English phoneme [
] is generally called neutral as it occurs
only in unstressed syllables. Because of that it is quite lax and may
have different variants of quality depending on the preceding or
following sounds. The principal variant of [
] is pronounced with the
central part of the tongue raised a little less than for [ ]. The tip of the
tongue is against the lower teeth. The vowel [ ] is central, half –open,
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unrounded, short and lax. It may occur both in open and closed
unstressed syllables.
There are 8 diphthongs in the English language. They are: [ ], [ ],
[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].
The English diphthong [
variant [
] begins with the position of an open
] which is more tense in the diphthong than the
monophthong. The lips are spread. The tongue moves in the direction
of a rather open [
]which becomes more open when [
] is in final
position. Examples: near, appear, mere, beer, cheerful, pierce.
The following mistakes in the articulation of [ ] should be avoided:
a) The nucleus must not be pronounced as a narrow Azerbaijanian
[i];
b) The glide must not be too open as the English [ ];
c) Consonants shouldn’t palatalized before [ ];
d) [
] should not be substituted by [
], as it might lead to a
phonological mistake.
The English diphthong [ ] is completely front. The tongue is in the
front part of the mouth cavity. The nucleus of the diphthong is a rather
open variety of [e] and the middle of the tongue glides in the direction
of an open and lax [ ]. The lips are spread.
The following mistakes in the pronunciation of [
] should be
avoided:
a) the nucleus must not be too open;
b) the glide should not be substituted by the Azerbaijanian [j];
c) consonants should not be palatalizer before or after [
Example: shake, lake, awake, pay, hate, etc.
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].
The nucleus of the diphthong [
] is not used as a monophthong in
English. The middle part of the tongue is raised a little more than for
[
], but not so much as for [
].therefore the nucleus of [
] is front,
between half –open and open and unrounded. The lips are spread. The
tongue moves in the direction of [
[
] which becomes rather open when
] occurs in final position. Examples: stair, where, careless, fairly,
prepare.
The following mistakes in the articulation of [
] should be avoided:
a) [ ] must not be pronounced as a monophthong like [ ] before the
sonorant [ ], especially as in “parents” [
] “fairy” [
b) the glide must not be too open like [
]
] in final position before a
pause.
The nucleus of the English diphthong [
] is also not used as a
monophthong. It is an open front vowel for which the front part of the
tongue is raised a little less than for [
towards a rather open and lax [
]. The organs of speech move
]. The lips are spread. The jaw is
considerable lowered for the nucleus and rises towards the end of the
diphthong. Examples: fly, why, wine, glide, buy, lie, etc.
The following mistakes should be avoided in pronouncing the
English [
]:
a) the nucleus must not be pronounced as the Azerbaijanian vowel
[ ], which is back.
b) the glide should not be pronounced as the consonant [ ], which is
heard in such Azerbaijanian words as: say, yay, ay after the vowel [
the English diphthong [
] begins with an open front vowel [
]
]
which is a little more back than in case of [ ]. The lips are spread. The
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opening between the jaws wide. From this position the tongue moves in
the direction of [
], but does not quite reach its position. The glide of
[ ] is a lax back vowel. The lips are rounded without protrusion.
Care should be taken not to pronounce the nucleus of [
Azerbaijanian back [
Azerbaijanian [
] as the
]. The glide must not become the rounded
] which is more back and has a considerable lip –
protrusion. In order to avoid this mistake the glide of [
] must be very
short and weak without any lip –protrusion: now, brown, house, crowed,
vowel, found.
There are three back diphthongs in English. They are [ ], [ ], [ ].
The diphthong [
] begins with the position of an open back vowel
[ ] which is very slightly rounded. If is intermediate between [ ] and
[
], but nearer in quality to the latter. The tongue moves in the
direction of an open lax [
] without reaching its actually position.
Examples: boy, soil, noise, voice, spoil, etc. Care should be taken not to
protrude the lips during the articulation of the nucleus of this
diphthong.
The diphthong [
] is back –advanced. The tongue starts from the
position of the back –advanced, half –open vowel [
] which is
considerable rounded. The lips are not much protruded and the
opening between them is rather wide. The back of the tongue is raised
to the front part of the soft palate and then moves higher in the
direction of [ ] which is also back –advanced, but half –close. The glide
of [
] is almost as tense as its nucleus, that is why this diphthong.
Examples: road, coat, bone, note, go, no, low.
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This diphthong is rather difficult for Azerbaijan leamers of English
to pronounced properly, as there are similar diphthong combinations of
vowels in Azerbaijanian [ ] and [
].
The following mistakes should be avoided and corrected:
a) The nucleus must not be substituted by the Azerbaijanian [
]
which is back, not back –advanced and rounded with considerable lip –
protrusion;
b) The nucleus must not be pronounced as the first element of the
Azerbaijanian vowel sequence [
], which is a front vowel, open and
much rounded with a lip protrusion. Such pronunciation would sound
in English as dialectal;
c) The glide should not be substituted by the Azerbaijanian [
]
which is more back and more open and is pronounced with considerable
lip –protrusion;
d) The glide should not be substituted by the Azerbaijanian [
]
which is a front, close vowel, much rounded with lip –protrusion.
The English diphthong [
] begins with the position of the back –
advanced, rather open variety of [
]. The lips are slightly rounded
without protrusion. It is short and lax, though not so lax as the
monophthong [ ]. The opening between the jaws is narrow. During the
glide the tongue moves down to the air becomes wider.
The articulation of this diphthong is very lax and weak what may
account for the fact that many Englishmen replace it by [ ] or [
even by [
], but [
] and
] considered to be more correct, as any other
pronunciation may lead to confusing the meaning of some words, for
example, poor [
] and pour [
].
15
The following mistakes in the articulation of [
] should be avoided:
a)the nucleus must not be replaced by the Azerbaijanian [u] which
is more back and more open and is pronounced with considerable lip –
protrusion;
b)the glide must not become too open as the vowel [ ];
c)the diphthong should not be replaced by a long vowel [
]. This
mistake may lead to the confusion of such words as:
sure [
cure [
tour [
]
and shoe [
]
] and queen [
]
] and
too [
] etc.
PART _2
General principles of vowel formation
The distinction between vowels and consonants is a very old one.
The principle of this division, however, is not sufficiently clear up to
the present time, the boundary between them being rather uncertain.
The old term “consonants precludes the idea that consonants cannot be
pronounced without vowels”. Yet we know that they can and often are;
for instance, in the sound that call for silence: [ ].
The fact that vowels are usually syllabic, does not mean that
consonants are incapable of forming syllables. On the contrary, they
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may be syllabic, too and we find many instances in the English
language of syllabic sonorants forming syllables by themselves.
Aconstically, vowels are musical sounds. Nevertheless, in the
formation of vowels considerable noise –producing narrowings and
sometimes created: on the other hand, some consonants possess
musical tense.
According to Prof. D. Jones: “The distinction between vowels and
consonants is not arbitrary physiological distinction. It is in reality a
distinction based on acoustic considerations, namely the relative
sonority or carrying power of the various sound”. In the opinion of D.
Jones, vowels are more sonourant than consonants. This is correct in
most cases, but some consonants especially sonorants, are very
sonorous (e. g. [m], [l], [n], [ ]). D. Jones gives the following definition:
“A vowel (in normal speech) is defined as a voiced sound in forming
which the aim issues in a continuous stream through the pharynx and
mouth, there being no obstruction and no narrowing such as would
cause audible friction. All the other sounds are called consonants”.
I. A. Baudouin
de Courtenay has discovered a physiological
distinction between vowels and consonants; according to his theory the
main principle of their articulation is different; in consonant
articulation the muscular tension is concentrated at one point which is
the place of articulation, in vowel articulation the muscular tension is
spread over all the speech organs. Knowing this we have no difficulty
in ascertaining whether one or another particular sound is a vowel or a
consonant.
17
Acoustically, a vowel is a musical sound, it is formed by means of
periodic vibrations of the vocal cords in the larynx.
The resulting sound waves are transmitted to the supra –laryngal
cavities (the pharynx and the mouth cavity), where vowels receive their
characteristic tamber.
We know from acoustics that the quality of a sound depends on the
shape and the size of the resonance chamber, the material which it is
made of and also, on the size and shape of the aperture of its outlet. In
the case of vowels, the resonance chamber is always the same the
supra –laryngal cavities. However, the shape and the size of the
chamber can be made to vary, depending upon the different position
that the tongue occupies in the mouth cavity and also depending on
any slight alternation in the position of the back wall of the soft palate
and of the lips which from the outlet of the resonance chamber. The
lips may be neutral or rounded, protruded or not protruded, forming a
small or a large aperture, or they may be spread, forming a narrow slit
–like opening. When the lips are protruded, the resonance chamber is
lengthened; when the lips are spread or neutral, the resonance
chamber is shortened its front boundary being formed practically by
the teeth.
It has already been mentioned that in producing vowels, the
muscular tension is spread equally over all the speech organs, yet the
tension may be stronger or weaker. If the muscular tension in the walls
of the resonance chambers is weaker, the vowel has the less distinct
quality, it may sometimes be quite obscure. If the muscular tension is
18
stronger, the vowel has a well defined quality. In the first case, the
vowels are called lax, in the second –tense.
It is difficult, however, if not next to impossible to classify vowels
correctly from the point of view of tenseness. The degree of tenseness
may be ascertained chiefly by comparison, while the result of
comparison depends largely upon the articulation basis of the mother –
tongue of the person who makes the comparison. To a Russian, for
instance, all vowels seem tense, because Russian vowels are lax.
We can know formulate the general principles of vowel articulation.
1) Vowels are based o voice which is modified in the supra –laryngal
cavities.
2) The muscular tension is spread over all the speech organs.
3) The air –stream passes through the supra –laryngal cavities
freely, no narrowings being expressly formed on its way.
4) The breath force is rather weak for, it is expended when the air
stream passes through the larynx and causes the vocal cords to vibrate.
Thus, vowels have no special place of articulation, the whole of the
speech apparatus takes part in producing them. The class sification of
vowels, as well as the description of their articulation is therefore
based upon the work of all the speech organs.
The Diphthong theory. If vowels are analysed on the basis of the
stability of the articulation, they may be divided into monophthongs
and diphthongs. Diphthongs are usually defined as vowels consisting of
two distinct elements forming one syllable: the two elements are closely
blended with one another.
19
All phoneticians agree that there are two kinds of diphthongs;
falling and rising diphthongs. The first is more common in European
languages; thus diphthongs of this type are usually considered true
diphthongs, while rising diphthongs are considered false ones.
O. Jespersen distinguishes:
1) falling diphthongs which calls true;
2) rising diphthongs which are false and
3) level diphthongs,
The equilibrium of both parts of which, in his opinion is not
sufficiently stable, so that sometimes it is difficult to decide whether
the first or the second element is syllabic. Thus the differs from other
linguists in distinguishing a third type of diphthong whose nature,
however, is not sufficiently clear.
L. V. Scerba also differentiates between true and false diphthongs,
but in his opinion a true diphthong is a monosyllabic combination of
two vowels which are equally sonorous. This type of diphthong is
rather rare, but it occurs in some languages. It can be found in the
Lettish language, for instance, where [ ], [ ] are true diphthongs, e. g.
piena, ruoka.
According to L. V. Scerba, there is only one type of true diphthong,
but two types of , false diphthongs: the falling and the rising type, the
former being mare common in all languages. Besides these, there are
monophthongs with a foreglide or with an afterglide that Scerba calls
“diphthongoids”. The Russian [
] phoneme and [
] phoneme are
samples of “diphthongoids”. They begin with a closer foreglide, thus [ ]
is preceded by an [ ] –foreglide, [ ] by an [ ] –foreglide.
20
The type of vowels that Scerba calls “diphthongoids” might sooner
be termed “imperfect diphthongs”, they cannot be called diphthongs in
the true sense of this word.
D. Jones gives the following definition of a diphthong: “a diphthong
is defined as an independent vowel glide not containing within it self
either a peak or a “trough” of promitence . He also distinguished
between short and long diphthongs, glide or narrow diphthongs.
He also speaks about an “imperfect” diphthong, which is not the
same as L. V. Scerba’s “diphthongoid”, but is defined as follows:
“Another kind of diphthong, called an imperfect diphthong, is produced
(1) when the initial vowel of a falling diphthong is appreciably
lengthened before the glide begins, or (2) when the final vowel of a
diphthong (falling or rising) is lengthened after the glide ends. “Two
examples are given : the first element of [
] is lengthened in singing
and the second element of [ ] is lengthened in uttering the interjection
“oh”.
Some of these statements are open to argument. If the initial vowel
of a falling diphthong can be lengthened, the final element of a falling
diphthong cannot. If it could be lengthened, it would be lose its
indistinct character and the diphthong would cease to be falling; it
would become true in the sense of Scerba’s diphthong theory. That is
the case with [ ]. Its second element always has a strong [ ] –quality
consequently, it is not falling, but leveled.
Inventory of English vowels. In ascertaining the phonemes of a
language, the following conditions are the most important:
1) a perfect command the language in question
21
2) a phonological approach to the problem.
Without a thorough knowledge of the language the phoneme
inventory which is to be ascertained, it is impossible to determine and
estimate the linguistic function of speech sounds.
There are other conditions which should be considered in phonemic
analysis:
1) the function of phonemes in pairs of words;
2) the functioning of sounds in phoneme alternations;
3) the functioning of phonemes as words;
4) the functioning of sounds in syllabic formation.
These conditions cannot be applied mechanically, and it is not
sufficiently to consider one of them apart from the others. In order to
make a correct phonological analysis a number of tests must be many.
Some others chain that phonemes can only analysed from
oppositions; if we find a word which cannot, by substitutional
phonemes, be turned into another word or other words, it cannot be
analysed into phonemes.
Any person is able to analyse into phonemes a new or an invented
word consisting of phonemes of his mother –tongue. This has done
every day without looking for oppositions. But, of course, we can make
such an analysis because we have met all the phonemes of our mother
–tongue in many and varied combinations.
The functioning of sounds in phoneme alternations must be taken
into consideration. Phonemic variants cannot replace another in the
same sound –sequence; every phonemic variant can appear under quite
definite conditions. The fact that two or more sounds replace one
22
another in the same morpheme which performs definite grammatical
or lexical functions is a proof that these are phonemes not variants.
Phonemes can occupy any position in a word, in contradistinction to
phonemic variants, which are determined by the sound sequence and
by other conditions. Yet it is not sufficient proof of the non –phonemic
nature of a sound, if its use is limited. For instance, the English [
]–
phoneme is never used initially; still, the fact that it is a phoneme can
be proved by a number of other methods –by the method of oppositions,
e. g. sun, sung [
].
When a phoneme is limited in its use, this is a sure proof of its
peculiar position in the phonemic system in question. It is either a
phoneme that has recently sprung into being, or it is one which is
losing its phonemic function and becoming a phonemic variant. L. V.
Scerba attached great importance to phonemic independence; the
ability of a sound to function as a separate word is a sure proof of its
phonemic nature.
The functioning of phonemes in the formation of syllables is
especially important I ascertaining whether a combination of vowels is
a diphthong phoneme or two separate monophthongs. In ascertaining
the inventory of English vowel phonemes it is not always possible to be
guided by English phoneticians, for the information is rather
contradictory.
In the chapter on English vowels D. Jones gives the following
explanation, which contradicts the English sounds: “There exist many
shades of pure vowel –sounds in southern English. Of these twelve are
23
of special importance for the foreign learner of English. They are
represented in this book by the notation “
“
Further he goes on to say : “four pairs of these vowels may be
considered as belonging to single phonemes in one type of southernb
English, long [
short [
] and short [ ], long [
], long [
] and [
] and short [ ], long [
]. The tamber of the English short [
differs considerably from that of the English long [
English the difference of length, that is to say , [
than [
] and
]
], but in this of
] is always longer
] when surrounded by the same sounds and pronounced with
the same degree of stress. Similarly with the pairs [ ] and [ ]. There
is not much difference in tamber between the long [
frequently used short [
] and the most
]. There are thus eight pure vowel phonemes
in southern English”.
From his book on phonemes, we learn, however, that the pairs of
vowels [ ] –[ ], [ ] –[ ], [ ] –[ ], [ ] –[ ] as well as [ ] –[ ], are
differentiated from each other both by tamber and by duration; besides,
it is not always easy to decide what many of them different; quality or
length.
D. Jones discuss chiefly the quality of these diphthongs [
] etc.
and not their phonemic function. In several cases his remarks show
that he doubts the phonemic nature of these diphthongs. For instance,
he says that many English people “feel” the diphthong [
sequence of [
] and [
] as a
] forming two syllables. This is a sure proof of
the non –phonemic nature of this ‘diphthong”. D. Jones himself
observes that the phonemic status of some diphthongs is descure [
that these vowels are not phonemic [
24
]
] and that the forms are all
colloquial reductions of fuller forms which are in common usage among
English people.
As to the monophthongs, D. Jones states that twelve “are
important”, but only eight of them can be considered phonemes. The
problem should be decided on the basis of their linguistic function. Are
these pairs of vowels [ ] –[ ], [ ] –[ ], [ ] –[ ], [ ] –[ ], [ ] –[ ]
distinctive or not distinctive? If they are then it makes no difference
which of the feature they posses are mainly responsible for this. D.
Jones considers that their duration has the preponderance over their
tamber. However, it may be, in analyzing phonemes all their
characteristic features should be included in the complete description
of the phoneme.
The views of the late A. F. Birshert of Moscow should also be
examined here. He maintained that [
], [
], [
], [
] cannot be
considered independent diphthong phonemes for the following reason:
Both [
] and [
] developed historically from two different
phonemes each, and in many words the second element of [ ] and [ ]
disappears when the words change their forms: real –reality [
[
]; individual –individuality [
] –[
] –
].
It cannot be denied that there are words in which the combinations
[
], [
] occur. Yet alongside with such cases them exist other words
in which [ ], [ ], [ ] cannot be broken up into two separate sounds on
the contrary they are met with in oppositions which show that a
substitution of [
] by [
] or [
] or of [
difference in the meaning of words: [
25
] by [
] –[
] or [
] –[
], creates a
] reed , rid,
reared: [
] –[
] –[
] bead, bid, beard: [ ] –[
] –[
], bed, bad,
bared.
Another proof that [ ] is undoubtedly a phoneme is the far, that it
appears in as morpheme and is used in a stressed position: [
[
],
] –engineer, brigadier.
It is more difficult to prove that [
] still exists as an independent
phoneme in modern English, for most words containing [
variant pronunciations with [
], [ ] and [
pronounced: [
] and [
][
], [
],[
] have
]; the word “sure” may be
].
However, the phonemic nature of [ ] can be proved by the fact that
it is used in a few words in which it cannot be replied by any other
sounds; e. g. boor [
poor [
] –[
], bourse [
] and by such oppositions as pooh –
]. However, they are few such words.
It is not improbable that in the course of time the depth [
] will
dwindle to the role of phonemic variant of some phoneme; probably of
the [ ] –phoneme, as is the case with [ ], it can no longer consider [ ]
an independent diphthong phoneme, there is not a single word in
which [
] could not be substituted for [ ].
A few words must be added about the character of English
diphthongs, excluding from their number all doubtfull cases. In the
English diphthong phonemes are falling with the exception [ ], which
is a true diphthong, for both its elements have distinct quality, and the
whole combination forms only one syllable.
If we compare the photographs of the lip –position the beginning
and the end of [
] we can see that the lips tense in both cases. If we
compare the photograph of the lip –position of the second element of
26
the diphthong [ ] with the photograph of the lip –position of short [ ]
we not that the former is undoubtedly tenser and more [
] –like; yet
we know that the second element of a falling diphthong never has a
distinct quality, but it is merely a glide. This we observe in the
photograph of the lip –position of the second element of [ ].
There is another proof of the fact it is a true diphthong. Prof. D.
Jones points out that the interjection [ ], in cases of emphasis may be
pronounced with the second element of the diphthong [
This is proof of the fact that [
] prolonged.
] is not a falling diphthong, since the
second element of a falling diphthong can never have a distinct vowel
quality, and therefore can never be prolonged.
All the English vowels with the exception of [
] are very widely
used; their phonemic function can be seen in distinguishing words, in
forming alternation series, in functioning as words. Words of one
syllable, forming oppositions, may be created by means of most of the
20 vowel phonemes. E. g. bead [
[
], board [
bowed [
], bud [
], beard [
], bid [
], bird [
], bared [
], bed [
], bade [
], bad [
], bode [
], bard
], bide[
],
].
Some of the phonemes function as words, for example, as names of
letters: a [ ], e [ ], I [ ], o [ ], r [ ].
The fact that all these vowels are phonemes can also be proved
their ability to form alternation series. E. g.
Begin –began –begun
Write –wrote –written
Do –did –done
27
[
] and [
]have their own pecularities which make them stand
part from all the other vowel phonemes. [
] is not frequently used as
the other phonemes. Moreover, in most cases it may be placed by [ ] or
one of its phonemic variants. E. g. Bournemath [
[
], [
], [
],
].
However, some words with [ ] have no variant pronunciations and
this helps to preserve it as a phoneme. Besides there are a few cases
when [
] can be met in oppositions with [ ] and with ither phonemes.
E. g. pooh [
The [
], poor [ ], pea [ ], paw [ ], pie [ ], etc.
] phoneme is very widely usedin any position and in all
kinds of words, but in spite of this its phonemic status is not include it
in the number of English vowel phonemes. Its use, although frequent,
is limited by unstressed syllables. However, its phonemic nature can be
proved by two facts:
1)there are a few pairs of oppositions as for example Betty [
better [
]–
]
2)it is capable of forming alternation series with other vowel
phonemes. E. g.
the strong form of the definite article; the [
] –the weak
form of the definite article.
and
in the indefinite article: a [
], an [
] – the strong
forms of the indefinite article; a [ ], an [ ] –the weak forms of the
indefinite article.
28
PART_3
Classification of English vowel Phonemes.
All the English vowel phonemes are divided into two large groups
according
to
the
stability
of
articulation:
monophthongs
and
diphthongs.
Monophthongs are vowels in the articulation of which the organs of
speech do not change their position. Therefore the quality of a
monophthong does not perceptibly change to its end. For example:
[ ],[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], etc/
Diphthongs are vowels in the articulation of which the organs of
speech glide from the position of one vowel in the direction of another.
Thus the quality of the vowel changes within one syllable and they
consist of two elements.
The first element of an English diphthong is called the nucleus. The
second element is called the glide. All the diphthongs have one syllable.
The first element is syllabic. For example; [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ] etc.
Vowels which have a diphthongal pronunciation, because there is a
glide in their articulation from a more open to a closer position are
called diphthongoids, for example, the English [ ] and [ ].
The difference in the quality of vowels depends on the shape and
size of the mouth cavity which is changed by the movement of the
tongue, the lips, the soft palate and also by the lowering of the jaw. The
shape and the size of the mouth opening may also change the quality of
vowels. When the lips are protruded the volume of the mouth resonator
29
increases. But the most important for detemining the quality of vowels
is the position of the tongue which may move horizontally, that is,
forward, backward and vertically, that is, up and down in the direction
of the palate.
1) According to the movement of the tongue in (pushed forward) the
horizontal vowels are classified into front, front –retracted, central,
back and back –advanced.
For front vowels the body of the tongue is pushed forward and the
resonance chamber is formed at the back of the mouth cavity, the front
of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, the tip of the
tongue is at the lower teeth. The English fully front vowels are: [ ], [ ],
[ ] and the Azerbaijanian front vowels are [
].
For front –retracted vowels the tongue is a little more retracted in
comparison with the position for fully front vowels and the middle is
raised towards the hard palate.
There is one front retracted vowel in English: [ ]. There are no front
retracted vowels in Azerbaijanian.
For central vowels the central part of the tongue is raised right
against the hard palate. English central vowels are [ ] and [
].
For back vowels the body of the tongue is in the back part of the
mouth cavity. The tip of the tongue is retracted from the lower teeth
and the back is raised towards the soft plate. The English fully back
vowels are: [
]. The Azerbaijanian back vowels are: a, o, u, i.
For back –advanced vowels the body of the tongue is also in the
back of the mouth, but a little advanced in comparison with the
position for the fully back vowels. The back part of the tongue is raised
30
towards the front of the soft palate. The English back advanced vowels
are: [
]. There are no back advanced vowels in Azerbaijanian.
2) According to the height to which the tongue is raised or the
vertical movement of the tongue vowels may be open, close, half –close,
half –open.
For close vowels one part of the tongue is raised high to the palate
and the air –passage is rather narrow.
The English close vowels are: [i:], [u:]
The Azerbaijanian close vowels are: [i], [ü], [u], [ı].
For open vowels one part of the tongue is raised a little in the
direction of the palate, the jaw is lowered and the air passage is very
wide. The English open vowels are: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]
The Azerbaijanian open vowels are: [ ]. [ ], [ ], [ ].
Various intermediate positions of the tongue result in half –open
vowels. The English half –open vowels are: [
], the English half –
close vowels are: [ ], [ ].
3) According to the shape of the lips vowels may be rounded or
labialized, and unrounded or non –labialized. For rounded vowels the
lips are more or less rounded and may be protruded or flat. The
following vowels are labialized in English [
elements of [
] and [
] and the first
]. The lip rounding plays a great role in the
articulation of Azerbaijanian vowel phonemes. The
lips work
energetically and are tense, pursed into a round opening and
considerably protruded. The lip –rounding may serve as a single
characteristic feature in distinguishing phonemes.
31
For the English unrounded vowels the lips may be neutral as for
[
] or spread as for [
]. The Azerbaijanian rounded vowels are: [ü, ö,
o, u ]. The unrounded vowels are [a, e, ı ] etc.
4) According to their quantity, or duration, vowels mat be long or
short.
The principle of duration of duration is quite clear in the
monophthongs which are opposed by their length. The duration of
vowels may vary under the influence of stress and other conditions, but
long vowels and short vowels have always difference in length in the
some phonetic conditions.
The English long vowels are: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]. These vowels may
occur in any position in a world: initial, middle, final, in open or closed
syllables.
The English short vowels are:[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]. These vowels
may occur a little longer before voiced consonants, sonorants, especially.
Only the English monophthongs [ ] and [ ] have no long counterparts,
that is why they are more liable to variations in length.
The English short vowels are checked, that is their utterance is
stopped abruptly without weakening of tenseness by the following
consonant. That is why they occur only in closed syllables. All the
English short vowels in stressed position are checked.
5) Azerbaijanian long vowels may occur only in certain positions in
a word: in unstressed syllables and in non –final position. The long
Azerbaijanian vowels differ from their short pair in length only, all the
other characteristic being the same: short vowels may become
considerably longer in Azerbaijanian. In certain types of questions, in
32
the so –called “noun” questions the vowel of the final syllable is
lengthened.
6) The relative tenseness of English vowels is closely connected
with their length.
All the English long vowels are tense. The muscles of the English
long vowels they hold on position for a rather long time. That requires
a great muscular of the organs of speech.
The vowel [
] may be rather tense when it occurs before nasal
sonorants or before voiced consonants in stressed syllables where it is
rather long. The Azerbaijanian vowels are not differentiated according
to their tenseness.
Long and short vowels are equally tense, but they are never so
tense as English long vowels in stressed position. The unstressed
vowels are only a little less tense than the stressed ones. This is
probably contracted with the character of Azerbaijanian stress which is
mainly tonic.
7) Neither English, nor Azerbaijanian vowels are differentiated
according to the position of the soft palate. They are all oral.
33
CONCLUSION.
The English vowels system consists of 20 vowels; phonemes which
may be classified according to the following principles:
1 –Stability of articulation; monophthongs and diphthongs. There
are 12 monophthongs and 8 diphthongs.
2 –The position of the tongue in the horizontal plain we
distinguished front, back and mixed vowels.
3 –The position of the tongue in the vertical open [
vowels [
] and close
]. Intermediate position of the tongue result in half –close
and half –open.
4 – Duration quantity –long and short vowels.
5 –The position of the lips: the rounded and the unrounded vowels.
This principle is not much used in English as only [ ], [ ] mat be said
to be distinguished by the position of the lips. Not all the vowel
phonemes are equally free in their distribution.
[ ] can only appeared in only unstressed syllables.
All the vowels may be used both in stressed and unstressed
positions. Long and short vowels former have a difference in length. All
the English vowels can be met in many alternation series which have
different functions in the language:
1 – they distinguished the form of the verb:
sell / sold
rise / rose / risen.
2 – they distinguished part of speech in the same root:
broad / breath
34
nation / national.
Vowels are usually syllabic. Vowels are musical sounds. In the
formation of vowels considerable are noisy; producing narrowing are
sometimes created some consonants posses musical tone.
In producing vowel tension may be stronger or weaker. If the
muscular tension is stronger, the vowel has a well defined quality. We
can formulate the general principles of vowel articulations:
1 – vowels are based on voice which is modified in the supra –
laryngal cavities.
2 – the muscular tension is spread over all the speech organs.
3 – the air –stream passes through the supra –laryngal cavities
freely no narrowings being expressly formed on its way.
4 – the breath force is rather weak for it is expended when the air –
stream passes through the larynx and causes the vocal cords to vibrate.
Vowels have no special place of articulation the whole speech
aperatures takes part in producing them. The classification of vowels
as well as the description of their articulation is based on the work of
all the speech organs.
35
LITERATURE
1) O. J. Dickushina “English Phonetics” (Baku 1965)
2) S. Babayev, M. Garayev “English Phonetics” (Baku
1983)
3) Vasilyev “English Phonetics” (Moscow 1970)
4) Torsuyev “English phonetics” (Moscow 1996)
5) F. Huseynoglu ‘Supplement to the book Introduction to
English Phonetics” (Baku 2003)
6) F. Veysalov “Typology” (Baku 2004)
by engineer yusif
yusif.ali@mail.ru
36