Annotated Bibliography
Primary Sources: 36
Ackerman, Bruce, Jack M. Balkin, Derrick A. Bell, Drew S. Days III, John Hart Ely, Catharine A.
MacKinnon, Michael W. McConnell, Frank I. Michelman, and Cass R. Sunstein. What
Brown v. Board of Education Should Have Said. New York and London: New York UP,
2001. Print.
In this book, nine of the nation’s top legal experts rewrite Brown v. Board of Education to
have the outcomes that they desired. Once they had each written an opinion of their thoughts,
they held a mock Supreme Court trial to try to reach a decision. They were not allowed to
reference anything in the future as fact, but rather suggest what may happen in the future if
the correct decision was not made. From this compilation, it became clear that there was so
much debate over integration and this court case that even fifty years after the decision had
been made, Americans have not come to an agreement about what should have been the
correct outcome.
"A Mother's Conscience Beats the Mob." Miami News: 1. News Archive Partner Program. Google.
Web. 17 Oct. 2010.
This article was written about a mother who made the decision to enroll her white daughter in
William Frantz Elementary School, regardless of the attendance of a black girl. She was at
first reluctant to allow her daughter to go to the school, only because she feared that the mobs
would be a danger, however, the next day she brought her daughter back to the school.
Parents like her were a help to the successful integration of education, making it possible for
blacks and whites to be educated together in the future. Because this article was written from
the views of a reporter who was at the scene of the mobs of people debating integration, it
was helpful and provided insight about the true violence surrounding the desegregation of
schools.
"African American World. History. My Story." PBS. PBS. Web. 16 Sept. 2010.
In this interview between Ruby Bridges and Charlayne Hunter-Gault, most of the questions
Hunter-Gault asks concern Bridges’ experiences throughout the first days in the white school
and how the crowds of protesters affected Bridges. It became clear that that religion was an
important part of Bridges’ life and helped her to make it through the year at the William
Frantz Elementary school. Through prayer she was able to find the strength to attend school
every day and to successfully complete the first grade. She remarks that she even prayed for
the “mean” people because she thought they needed help from God. Bridges was a part of the
integration of southern schools and was successful in the integration of the William Frantz
School, creating the Ruby Bridges Foundation in the future.
Bankston, Carl L., and Stephen J. Caldas. A Troubled Dream: the Promise and Failure of School
Desegregation in Louisiana. Nashville: Vanderbilt UP, 2002. Print.
This book provided us with insight about the ultimate failure of integration in New Orleans.
Bankston and Caldas performed a case study to show how much of a failure desegregation
truly was. From this book, we were able to learn more about the case Bush v. New Orleans,
and the efforts made by the Louisiana Government to impede the progression of integration.
It became clear that had Governor Davis not passed many laws that went against the decision
of Brown v. Board of Education, integration may have been a success.
"Boycott Loosens in New Orleans." Milwaukee Sentinel 3 Dec. 1960. News Archive Partner
Program. Google. Web. 17 Oct. 2010.
This article was written in 1960, about the integration of William Frantz Elementary School
and McDonogh No. 19. William Frantz was integrated by Ruby Bridges, while McDonogh
was integrated by three girls, Tessie Prevost, Gail Etienne, and Leona Tate. The debate over
integration was violent, with both sides having strong views. Governor Davis, of Louisiana,
pleaded his state to continue to fight for the segregation of the schools, which made it more
difficult to integrate the public schools. The legislature of Louisiana was against integration
as well, offering aid to parents who wished to send their children to segregated private
schools. Because the government of Louisiana was working against the federal government,
integration was not as successful as what it could have been.
Bridges, Ruby. Through My Eyes. Comp. Margo Lundell. 1st Ed. New York: Scholastic, 1999. Print.
Bridges’ second book explains her experience through her own poignant words. Her
biography also contains quotes from other influential people who affected her experience at
William Frantz Elementary School. This book shows the historical context of her story
among other the students who were involved in the integration progress in the South at the
time, as well as its connection to the larger issue of the Civil Rights movement. Her parents’
decision to send her to an all white school, which was controversial and risky, caused debate
among some of the Bridges’ closest family and friends. Overall the decision for Bridges to
attend William Frantz created a long debate throughout Southern society.
Brown v. Board of Education. Supreme Court. 17 May 1954. The National Center for Public Policy
Research. Web. 24 Sept. 2010.
This court case had much significance to the integration of public schools in the 1950s. It
was successful in ending the policy of “separate but equal,” as it decided that this policy was
unconstitutional, based on the 14th amendment. Following this court case, many all white
public schools in the South were forced to integrate as an attempt to end the period of
segregation. However, many governmental figures were still opposed to the integration of
schools, making it much for difficult for this case to be enacted. There was much debate over
this court case in the 1950’s; it had to go all the way to the Supreme Court before it could be
decided.
Bush v. Orleans Parish School Board. Federal District of Louisiana. 12 Dec. 1960. Justia. Web. 19
Feb. 2011.
This case was debated between Governor Jimmie Davis and the Louisiana Federal District
Court Judge Skelly Wright. Davis believed that through interposition, he would not have to
integrate his public schools. However, the ruling of this case proved that interposition was
not Constitutional policy and therefore integration should occur in New Orleans.
Consequently, New Orleans public schools began to integrate. Many of the statutes that
Wright had previously passed were annulled.
Coleman, James S. Equality of Education Opportunity. Rep. no. ICPSR 6389. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University, 1966. National Archives. Web. 8 May 2011.
This was a 1966 study done on the public school system that showed the extreme
educational achievement gap that existed between whites and blacks. It was one of
the first studies to show the negative effects of segregation. The most important piece
of information we drew from this study was the fact that 12th grade African-American
students were at the same education level as 9th grade Caucasian students.
Davis, Jimmie. Speech. Speech by Governor Jimmie Davis on Statewide Television, November 13,
1960. New Orleans, New Orleans. 13 Nov. 1960. Federal Judicial Center. Federal Judicial
Center. Web. 20 Feb. 2011.
This source gave us information on the views of Louisiana Governor Jimmie Davis on the
issue of desegregation. This speech he gave the day before Ruby Bridges integrated William
Frantz Public School shows that the state government debated over the decisions of the
federal government. Jimmie Davis wants to protect the “people” of New Orleans by fighting
for the continuation of segregation of public schools.
"Dwight D. Eisenhower Quotes." The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum Homepage.
National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 08 May 2011.
This site gave us access to the presidential library which contained quotes given by Dwight
D. Eisenhower during his presidency. We were able to use his quotes on school segregation,
which gave us his opinion on school integration. Eisenhower did support desegregation, but
did not actively involve himself in public affairs regarding desegregation.
Emotional Aspects of School Desegregation: a Report by Psychiatrists. New York: Group for the
Advancement of Psychiatry, 1960. Print.
Together, a group of psychologists wrote a book, describing the emotional aspects for the
country, the community and the individual during integration. For the country, much of
society is economically and educationally unprivileged which ultimately weakens economic
growth, due to segregation. In the community, segregation leads to high disease and crime
rates, which lowers the well-being of the community. For the individual, the feeling of
inferiority creates resentment and anger, which may lead to depression. This source portrayed
that integration was of the best interest for the country, the individual and the community. In
the debate over integration, many psychologists were fighting for it, to improve society as a
whole.
Gallacher, Andy. "The Ruby Bridges Story - Canon 7D - Canon EOS 7D on Vimeo." Vimeo, Video
Sharing For You. Vimeo LLC, 2010. Web. 23 Nov. 2010.
This video contains footage from the day Bridges integrated The William Frantz Elementary
School. There are people screaming threats and verbally attacking her. The video also
includes Bridges talking about her experiences and how they affected her. She recalls most
vividly walking into William Frantz each morning and seeing the same woman holding a
wooden box, resembling a casket, screaming that she was going to kill her. Bridges
experience was very dramatic for her and this video shows how it affected her and her family
personally. There are also clips from her talking to a class of students, teaching them of how
difficult her integration was and how she was successful in integrating William Frantz. She is
now trying to be an active member of the school, trying to improve it.
Huston, Luther A. "High Court Bans School Segregation." The New York Times [New York] 18 May
1954. Print.
This article, written for the New York Times in May 1954, describes the decision made in the
Brown vs. Board of Education case. All nine supreme justices voted to outlaw the
segregation of education. However, many of the individual states believed that these rules
only applied to public schools, and not private schools. It was a significant case within the
Civil Rights movement, as education was the first part of society to be integrated, leading to
the integration of society as a whole. This decision should have been a monumental success
for the blacks, but many southern states ignored it, and there was not much change. It was
interesting to see the perspective of a white man about the decision to integrate education.
"I Have A Dream Speech - Martin Luther King Speeches." Martin Luther King Online - Speeches,
Pictures, Quotes, Biography, Videos of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.!Intellectual Properties
Management. Web. 17 May 2011.
This website gave us access to Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech. This gave
us background information on discrimination and segregation inflicted towards blacks. We
used this in our timeline to show examples of past events that pushed for desegregation and
influences of the desegregation process.
Kennedy, John F. "Civil Rights Address." Speech. White House, Washington, D.C. 11 June 1963.
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library
and Museum. Web. 9 Oct. 2010.
John F. Kennedy addressed the problems of the nation by broadcast on the radio and on
television with his speech about civil rights. In order for the president to address an issue, it
must have a high level of significance or controversy which proves that the debate over civil
rights, was at that time, a major topic. He discovered addressing the topic was a necessary
step after he realized that it was required to have Alabama National Guardsmen for two
blacks to attend the University of Alabama. It was crucial for the president to talk to the
entire nation about racism because there was such a strong debate about equal rights for
blacks and whites. This speech was very valuable because it was given by a white man
during the 1960s, providing a different view point than that of today. It is a reliable source, as
it is a speech that was given by the president of the United States.
Kilpatrick, James Jackson. The Southern Case for School Segregation. [New York]: CrowellCollier, 1962. Print.
James Jackson Kilpatrick, an influential editor of the Richmond News Leader, wrote this
book in an attempt to defend the position of white Southerners who were opposed to
segregation. He includes charts and tables to support his case that segregation is a failure in
the south. Kilpatrick acknowledges that the blacks’ lack of abilities were a detriment to white
schools, yet did the whites did not propose any ways to improve the abilities of blacks. This
book was written in 1962, only two years after integration began, and describes how
integration was necessary to make blacks equal in society. Although integration was initially
a failure because only 171 blacks students were in desegregated schools in the deep South by
1962, the southerners still felt that they needed to defend themselves against the federal
government. This shows the illegitimacy of the southern state court's actions to oppose the
federal government.
The Louisiana State Advisory Committe. The New Orleans School Crisis. Rep. Baltimore:
University of Maryland, 1960. Web. 17 May 2011.
This was a study done through the University of Maryland about the process of desegregation
in New Orleans. The study concluded that whites would rather close down the public schools
than integrate the schools, while the vast majority of blacks would much rather prefer to
begin the process of integration. This difference in opinion represents the debates between
races over the desegregation of New Orleans public schools.
"More Students Attend Class in Louisiana." Lodi News Sentinel 7 Dec. 1960. News Archive Partner
Program. Google. Web. 17 Oct. 2010.
This article, written at the height of high tensions in the South, describes the methods the
police officers had to use to protect the children attending William Frantz Elementary school
during the integration of Ruby Bridges. One hundred police officers were required to keep
away the white protesters from the school. The article was written at the point of the highest
attendance of the school, with twenty-three white students attending with Bridges. Due to
this, the white hecklers were extremely aggravated, and because they were kept a block away
from the school, they threw eggs at the cars of the students as they drove by. The day before,
the hecklers had destroyed the home of a man who brought his son into the school, painting
on the porch and ripping out window screens. This article made it clear that there was debate
over the integration of William Frantz Elementary, as one hundred police men were required
at the school to prevent the protesters from hurting the children. Clearly, the women were
strongly against the integration of the school if they felt it was necessary to egg young
children to prevent it.
New Orleans by the Numbers: School Enrollment & Demographics. Rep. Tulane University- Cowen
Insitute, Dec. 2010. Web. 7 Jan. 2011.
This is a report done by Tulane University studying the demographics of New Orleans public
schools. The results show the failure of integration, as there is a 4:1 ratio of black students to
white students in the public school system. In the district that Bridges integrated, 93% of the
students are black. From this source, we concluded that integration was largely a failure, due
to the reverse ratio of blacks to whites in New Orleans public schools.
"Online NewsHour: A Conversation with Ruby Bridges Hall -- February 18, 1997." PBS. Knight
Foundation, 18 Feb. 1997. Web. 16 Sept. 2010.
Ruby Bridges writes of her experiences attending the all white William Frantz School in New
Orleans. The article she wrote gives insight into the background of her situation. She took a
test and was selected along with a couple other black girls, but she was the only one to attend
the William Frantz School because she was the only one in the New Orleans school district.
This helped to gain information on how she felt through her first grade year and helped to
learn that she did not realize that she was being treated poorly because of her skin until the
very end of the school year when other white children joined her class. She was successful in
integrating the all white school, but there was still much debate between the parents and
teacher over whether or not to treat her equally as the white children.
Plessy v. Ferguson. Supreme Court. 18 May 1896. Cornell University Law School. Cornell
University. Web. 26 Sept. 2010.
The decision made by this court case resulted in the segregation of schools, and the phrase,
“separated but equal.” The most important information drawn from this case was that the
white man had the power to decide what race all others were. A man who was seven eights
Caucasian, who appeared to be a white man, was determined to belong to the negro race.
This case, debated over many years, caused segregation to be written in law, and “separate
but equal” was adopted the majority of the United States. It took a lot of hard work and other
court cases in the future to undo what this case did to the rights of the black man. Following
this case, the South became an even more hostile legal environment for blacks, who had the
little rights they had stripped from them.
"Public Agenda: Snapshots in Time -- The Public in the Civil Rights Era." | Public Agenda. Web. 07
May 2011.
This allowed us to view public opinion polls from the New Orleans Parish population. It was
helpful to see the statistics of people’s opinions over the integration process and the results of
the Brown v. Board of Education decision. It exemplifies the debate between the people in
New Orleans Parish and their differing opinions. The tensions within the population
stimulated the debate over integrating the Williams Frantz Elementary school. This also
shows that de jure desegregation does not ensure de facto desegregation.
Renwick, Lucille. “THE COURAGE TO LEARN.” Instructor [1990] 111.1 (2001): 35. Academic
OneFile. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.
Lucille Renwick’s interview with Ruby Bridges and Barbara Henry discusses Bridges’ and
Henry’s perspective about the integration process and events that followed. Because Bridges
and Henry were central to the first desegregation of public schools, it was important to learn
about what they experienced and their opinions during this time. The significance of Bridges’
and Henry’s experiences became clear after reading this interview. After reading this article,
it became clear that there was much debate over allowing Bridges to go to an all-white
school; there were dozens of protestors lined up every day to debate her admission.
Southern Manifesto on Integration (March 12, 1956), H.R. 4459-4460, 84th Cong., 102
Governmental Printing Office (1956). Print.
The Southern Manifesto on Integration shows the reactions of the Southern people when the
law on desegregation of public schools was passed. Integration of schools in the south was a
long debate between the white and the black populations. The white southerners strongly
disagreed with the law stating the public schools must be desegregated and reacted by
gathering to sign the Southern Manifesto. They wanted to keep the schools segregated and
debated that the Supreme Court abused their judicial power. The southerners believed that
the majority of the United States wanted to keep the blacks and whites separate. Many signed
the document, but it was unsuccessful and did not pass.
Steinbeck, John, comp. Reporting Civil Rights. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Library of America, 2003.
Print.
John Steinbeck gave an interesting perspective, opposite to Bridges experience being
escorted to school. Instead, he gave the perspective of the whites protesting Ruby, who were
mothers of white children. These mothers were not interested in Ruby, but were interested in
seeing which white parents still brought their children to William Frantz Elementary. These
protesters were “crazy actors playing for a crazy audience,” they were putting on a show for
the media to create attention. The debate was not whether Bridges was allowed to go to the
school, because they could not change that, but to argue against the white parents that
allowed their children to go to the same school.
Stoff, Sheldon. The Two-Way Street; Guideposts to Peaceful School Desegregation. Indianapolis:
David-Stewart Pub., 1967. Print.
Stoff’s book summarizes the conditions that are necessary for a successful integration. His
studies were done in the 1950s and 1960s, the time period during which integration was
occurring. From this source, it was concluded that there were many factors that were
necessary for successful integration due to the extreme debate about it in the South. It was
interesting to read this book because it was written by a white man, and there were not many
whites who were in favor of integration. This book explains that there are specific conditions
necessary for integration, and if these conditions were not met, integration would have been a
failure.
Tulane University. The State of Public Education in Louisiana (April 2011). Rep. Cowen
Institute, Apr. 2011. Web. 8 May 2011.
This is a study done by Tulane University about the New Orleans public schools in
2011. It portrayed how black students scored significantly worse than white students
on standardized tests proctored throughout the nation. Even in current times, the
achievement gap between the whites and the blacks exists.
United States of America. House of Representatives. Southern Manifesto on Integration. PBS:
Public Broadcasting Service. Dec. 2006. Web. 09 Jan. 2011.
This is the text of the “Southern Manifesto” signed by 19 of 77 congress members in 1956
describing the Brown v. Board of Education decision as “a clear abuse of judicial power.”
The Manifesto lists several examples of how Brown v. Board was an unconstitutional
decision to be made; one reason being education is not mentioned in the constitution. This
transcript is evidence of governmental opposition to the integration, and not exclusively
citizen resistance. This is significant to our thesis of how the local and national government
attempted to restrict or stop the integration of schools.
United States of America. Lousiana Legislature. Joint Resolution of Louisiana State Legislature
Urging Boycott of Desegregated Schools. By C. C. Aycock and J. Thomas Jewell. New
Orleans, 1960. Federal Judicial Center- Bush v. New Orleans. Federal Judicial Center, 2005.
Web. 6 Jan. 2011.
This was a resolution written by C. C. Aycock, Lieutenant Governor and President of the
Senate, and J. Thomas Jewell, Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives, in an
effort to stop the integration process. It was published in every newspaper in New Orleans,
and all of the expenses were paid by the Louisiana House of Representatives. It shows the
debates to stop integration, as it urged white parents to remove their children from the
integrated schools. Consequently, Ruby Bridges attended William Frantz Elementary school
alone, and integration was a failure.
United States of America. The Supreme Court. By Felix Frankfurt. PBS: Public Broadcasting
Service, Dec. 2006. Web. 09 Jan. 2011.
This was the original draft of the Brown v. Board of Education II decision which directed
schools to integrate “with all deliberate speed.” The NAACP pushed for a set out plan and
deadline for integration, however the court decision allowed schools to integrate at their
leisure by permitting them to determine when to desegregate. In the margins of this
document, Justice Felix Frankfurter wrote “with all deliberate speed.” This decision was an
important part of the Southern educational integration process. The phrasing was significant
because it failed to make a deadline and therefore had little impact on the majority of
schools. This decision was evidence that the court desired to please the public while putting
the constitutional meaning as secondary.
"Wild School Mob Gets Nowhere." Miami News 3 Dec. 1960. News Archive Partner Program.
Google. Web. 17 Oct. 2010.
This article describes how the citizens of New Orleans were able to watch the protests
outside of William Frantz Elementary and McDonogh No. 19 from their homes, as the news
covered the protests in depth. On the television, citizens could see the hecklers, mostly
women, curse, yell, and spit on the white parents who decided to enroll their children in the
integrated schools. If William Frantz Elementary had been shut down due to the debate and
violence over the attempts at desegregation, then all of the public schools in Louisiana would
have been closed as well, and integration would have been a failure. The governor of
Louisiana was considering shutting down all of the public schools in the state to prevent
integration. All of the white children would have been able to attend private schools, but the
black children would not have been able to get an education. Integration was so debated that
even some members of the government were willing to close down public schools to prevent
it.
"William Rehnquist, "A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases," 1952." Supreme Court
History. PBS, Dec. 2006. Web. 9 Jan. 2011.
In 1952, William Rehnquist, future Chief of Justice, discussed his thoughts on school
integration and his personal belief that a public should not be forced into a situation if there is
a high and majority opposition among citizens. He believes that Brown v. Board decision
was incorrect, and that Plessy v. Ferguson was right and should be re-affirmed. This is
evidence of a discrepancy among the judicial government. It is also an example of how some
officials encourage re-decision making and undoing decisions. Similar to that situation is
Louisiana’s Jimmie Davis, who made efforts to counter Judge Wrights pro-integration
actions.
"WSB-TV Newsfilm Clip of African American First-grade Girls Integrating McDonogh 19
Elementary School as They Are Watched by White Policemen and by Cheering African
Americans in New Orleans, Louisiana, 1960 November 14." Welcome to the Civil Rights
Digital Library. The Digital Library of Georgia, 2009. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.
The video clip is from 1960 and shows the reactions of the people in the South when the
black girls began to integrate Southern public schools. The reactions of the black people were
encouraging and supportive, but the reactions of the white people were discriminating and
threatening. The debate between the two populations in the South was large, but the video
was made to seem like the girls were safe and undisturbed by whites. The clip shows a young
black girl and her mother walking up the stairs of McDonogh 19 School then it shows
African Americans cheering and clapping for the young girl. The narrator states that there are
Federal Marshals and white policemen to make sure no harm was placed on the girl and to be
sure the integration was successful.
"WSB-TV Newsfilm Clip of Segregationist Demonstrators Protesting the Integration of William
Frantz Public School, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1960 November 29." Welcome to the Civil
Rights Digital Library. The Digital Library of Georgia, 2009. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.
This video clip shows the reactions of the whites toward anyone involved in the movement to
integrating the public schools in the South. The debate over integration affected not only
black people fighting against discrimination, but also young white children and their families.
The video shows a young white girl and her mother walking to the William Frantz Public
School even though black children have been allowed to attend. They shout a reoccurring
phrase, “two, four, six, eight we don’t want to integrate.” The video shows how the debate
became threatening and led to violent outbreaks.
"WSB-TV Newsfilm Clip of White Demonstrators Protesting the Court-ordered Integration of
Schools in New Orleans, Louisiana, 1960 November 14." Welcome to the Civil Rights
Digital Library. The Digital Library of Georgia, 2009. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.
This clip shows the integration of William Frantz Public School and shows Ruby
Bridges walking through the crowd of screaming white people. The clip ends with her
successfully entering the school, but the white people continue to scream and threaten
Bridges. The clip shows the women yelling threats at Ruby and telling their young
children to tell the reporter that they do not want to integrate. The children in the clip
are afraid of how their mothers are acting and threatening a child and begin to cry, but
their mothers continue to try to get them to scream with them.
Secondary Sources: 55
"40 Years After, Ruby Bridges Fights On - CBS News." Breaking News Headlines: Business,
Entertainment & World News - CBS News. CBS Worldwide Inc, 2000. Web. 16 Oct.
2010.
CBS news has an article on the thoughts of Ruby Bridges during her time at the
William Frantz School. Her initial reaction was that she was in the midst of a Mardi
Gras celebration. She did not realize that the continuous debate was all centered on
her until a white boy who joined her class told her that he was not allowed to play
with her because of the color of her skin. She went on to publish books and make
speeches on her experiences because she did not want to let the memory of her acts
against segregation just die out. She wanted people to remember the courage of all the
people who took part in the debate against segregation in the south.
"American Experience | New Orleans | People & Events." PBS. PBS Online/WGBH, 1 Dec. 2006.
Web. 24 Oct. 2010.
This article summarizes the entire Civil Rights Movement, and makes it clear the Ruby
Bridges was a very important part of it. She successfully integrated an all-white elementary
school, making it possible for other black children to attend public school in New Orleans.
From this article, the most important information drawn was that nowadays, 70% of the
students enrolled in New Orleans public schools are black. This can be considered a success
of the integration of Bridges as it became possible for other students to attend public schools
in the future. It could also be viewed as a failure because the majority of the white children
are attending elite private schools, separately from the blacks.
"Anne Frank, Ruby Bridges and Ryan White Featured in 'The Power of Children: Making a
Difference'" PR Newswire. Gale Biography In Context, 10 Jan. 2007. Web. 16 Sept. 2010.
The article titled Anne Frank, Ruby Bridges and Ryan White Featured in 'The Power of
Children: Making a Difference describes the exhibit in the Children’s Museum of
Indianapolis which is designed to teach children, families and teachers the extreme prejudice
that Ruby Bridges and two other powerful children in history endured. The exhibit contains
first-person interviews, live theater, and real artifacts to demonstrate the significance of the
three children’s experiences. All of these children faced controversial decisions and their
choices and actions caused society to debate whether they were justified. Ruby Bridges’ story
is influential for children today, because she showed how one persons’ success leads to
success for all of society.
Braunstein, Peter. The Sixties Chronicle. Lincolnwood, IL: Legacy, 2004. Print.
This book was a timeline of event in the sixties. The flux in politics had an enormous impact
on the success of the civil rights movement. President Kennedy was a supporter of black
rights, which gave a drive to ignite the Civil Rights movement. Though law had been made
in regards to education, states could chose not to follow these laws. Kennedy work closely
with Martin Luther King, and had promised to create a civil rights bill, which would give
black civil right is all sectors of society. However Kennedy was assassinated before he
created the bill, but the vice president completed Kennedy’s legislative agenda. The success
of the Civil Rights movement was largely due to the support of President Kennedy.
"Brown I and Brown II - The Civil Rights Movement in Virginia - Virginia Historical Society."
Virginia Historical Society - The Center for Virginia History. Web. 08 Oct. 2010.
The article "Brown I and Brown II” described the two parts to the Brown v. Board of
Education case. Brown I which was decided on May 17, 1954 was actually the culmination
of five court cases. The court cases were only allowed to be considered if the were in favor of
integration, not restoration of a segregated school. Brown I decision overturned the Plessy v.
Ferguson case, which previously decided separate, but equal, because separate is inherently
unequal. Brown II, issued in 1955, proceed with the integration process. This vital court
decision was the largest legal debate which led to making integration possible.
Bridges, Ruby. "Realizing the Dream." Ed. Kenneth J. Ducote. The Ruby Bridges
Foundation. (14 Nov. 2010). Print.
This document was published for the 50th anniversary of Bridges’ integration into
William Frantz. The Ruby Bridges Foundation summarizes the debates of the past,
but shows how segregation is still a problem, and how there is a large gap in
academic achievements between blacks and whites. It highlights the ways the
foundation is planning on helping to improve the overall education in New Orleans
especially in the recovery after Hurricane Katrina.
“BRUSH WITH CONSCIENCE ROCKWELL MUSEUM LOOKS AT ARTIST’S HARDESTHITTING PIECES.” Albany Times Union [Albany, NY] 3 June 2004: 35. Gale U.S. History
In Context. Web. 8 Oct. 2010.
The Albany Times’ article comments on Norman Rockwell’s painting of Ruby Bridges. The
young girl was portrayed walking to school with her four U.S. Marshal body guards in a
white dress with a matching bow in her hair. On the wall next to her is a racial derogatory
term and a smashed tomato intended to hit Ruby. This painting marked a shift in Rockwell’s
focus from light hearted nostalgic scenes to “topical paintings” as Linda Pero described them,
museum curator. Rockwell began painting more political pieces such as “Murder in
Mississippi” recalling the story of three civil rights activists who were murdered by the Ku
Klux Klan in 1965. If Norman Rockwell represents the impression Ruby left on American
citizens, it is clear based on his change in direction with his painting that she was successful
in affecting the lives of many individuals.
"Bush v. Orleans." Federal Judicial Center. Web. 16 Dec. 2010.
This website was a summary of the legal fight towards gaining equal education for blacks
and whites in New Orleans. From this source, it was made clear that integration was
ultimately a failure due to the actions of the Louisiana government, and the legislature of the
New Orleans Parish School Board. They took measures to legally oppose the desegregation
of public schools, the consequences of which can still be seen today. The opposition of white
parents also made it difficult for the blacks to integrate the public schools.
“CONGRESS PASSES FEINGOLD-MOORE RESOLUTION INSPIRED BY MILWAUKEE
FIRST GRADE CLASS.” States News Service 3 Feb. 2010. Academic OneFile. Web. 20
Sept. 2010.
States News Service’s article showed that Ruby Bridge affected people throughout the
nation. A resolution was passed by Congress, recognizing November 14, 1960, as the first
official day of integration in New Orleans. This resolution also honored Bridges’ bravery and
courage; as she went on to found The Ruby Bridges Foundation, with the goals to eliminate
racism by educating students about her experiences. This shows how her time in the William
Frantz school was successful because she was able to affect many people nationwide and she
was able to create a foundation to support numerous schools.
Danzer, Gerald A., J. Jorge Klor De Alva, Larry S. Krieger, Louis E. Wison, and Nancy Woloch.
"Civil Rights." The Americans. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell, 2007. 904-32. Print.
This textbook gives an overview of the Civil Rights movement, touching on court cases and
boycotts. It discusses the Little Rock Nine, providing visuals and direct quotations from the
individuals. The Civil Rights Acts of 1957 is explained, which showed how governmental
action was necessary to attempt to end the debates over racism and give blacks and whites
the same rights. Black suffrage is covered, as well as the freedom riders movement and
Martin Luther King Jr. From this source, it became clear that there was much debate over the
idea of integration. The two sides became apparent; some whites were very resistant to the
idea, while others were glad to help African Americans.
Dequine, Kari. "Ruby Bridges Inspires Library Crowd." The Times-Picayune. DailyComet.com, 4
Oct. 2010. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.
This article was written recently about the long term effect Ruby Bridges has on people, fifty
years after she successfully integrated William Frantz Elementary School as part of the Civil
Rights movement. From this article, it became clear that Bridges has influenced many
Americans in her short lifetime, and she still has an impact on people today. She was a
significant part of the Civil Rights movement, integrating an all-black school. Bridges visited
a library to speak to an audience who crowded in, just to hear her speak and get the chance to
talk to her. Although Bridges integrated a school fifty years ago, she still has an impact on
American society today.
"Education and Civil Rights." History Learning Site. History Learning Site, 2000. Web. 10 Oct.
2010.
The History Learning Site was able to give us background information on the events and
atmosphere of the Civil Rights movement. Education was a very important part of the Civil
Rights movement and kept African Americans form furthering themselves in society.
Schools in the South were segregated until 1954 when the Supreme Court passed a law
stating that the South must begin to desegregate their schools. There was much debate over
this and ultimately the Supreme Court failed in forcing integration. Multiple African
Americans who fought with the NAACP for integration were tortured or killed. Black parents
kept their children in the all black schools because they feared the consequences of sending
their kids to white schools. There was much violence as a result of the desegregation process
and integration was not successful until the early 1960s.
Frailing, Kelly, and Dee Wood Harper Jr. "School kids and oil rigs: two more pieces of the postKatrina puzzle in New Orleans." The American Journal of Economics and Sociology 69.2
(2010): 717+. General Reference Center Gold. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.
This is a section of a journal about the history of New Orleans, focusing on the ramifications
of integration and the long term effects it had on the city. When integration was first
beginning, about one percent of all of the city’s black children were enrolled with whites, yet
many whites moved out of New Orleans to attend all white schools. A former New Orleans
school board member, in 1992, believed that integration of the schools had no effect because
the whites chose to leave the integrated schools and the quality of those schools began to
decline. This would be considered a failure of the attempted integration of New Orleans
public schools. However, the integration did not have other successes, such as the increase of
the black population in New Orleans.
Freedman, Samuel G. "Still Separate, Still Unequal." New York Times 16 May 2004. Print.
The article written by Samuel Freedman is about the question of if segregation was bad or if
integration is the right direction. Well known civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr.
explains his opinion on the integration of schools. King supports the integration of public
facilities however he did not encourage the integration of schools because he thought that
white people considered themselves superior to the black race. He believes that because of
those opinions, white people should not have free rein or influence over the education of the
black population. This is a significant opinion because Martin Luther King Jr. was such a
prominent leader in the Civil Rights Movement. This adds to the debate of if the integration
of schools was the correct decision or if funding for a separate but equal School system
should have been created.
Fussell, Elizabeth. ""Constructing New Orleans, Constructing Race: A Population History of New
Orleans," by Elizabeth Fussell, Journal of American History." The Journal of American
History. Dec. 2007. Web. 21 Feb. 2011. <Organization of American Historians>.
This article, written by Elizabeth Fussell, provided us with information about the racial
composition of the New Orleans population. She explains why the racial shifts happened, and
we were able to compare the shifts to those of the public schools. It became clear that the
integration of the public schools caused many whites to leave the city, and New Orleans
became a majority black population.
George, Charles. Civil Rights: The Struggle for Black Equality. San Diego, CA: Lucent, 2001. Print.
Charles’ book gives us context and background information on the Civil Rights movement,
which was going on during the time that Bridges was chosen to attend William Frantz school.
Chapter two was the most important and useful chapter of the book. It talked about the
judicial process to gaining the opportunity to integrate schools and the affects it had on the
black and white communities. Chapter two also referenced the psychological affects the
integration of schools had on black children, which were similar to the affects it had on
Bridges. The book gave us a broader picture on what was going on at the time of Bridges
childhood and it gave us insight into the complicated process the debate on segregation
during the Civil Rights movement included. This source was helpful for because of its
reliable information; the sources listed in the back of the book can also help with further
research.
Hague, Euan. "Welcome to the Citizens’ Councils Newspaper Historical Resource Web Site to Aid
in the Understanding of the Modern Civil Rights Era." Citizens Council. Web. 18 Oct. 2010.
The Citizens Council was originally a pro-white supremacy group that was also prosegregated schools. The group created a paper to spread their ideas, Mississippi’s The
Citizens’ Council. This newspaper supports the theme of debate because the opinions in the
news paper directly oppose those who support the integration of schools and directly oppose
Bridges’ actions. It also brings to attention the actions of anti-integration groups that did
more than form angry mobs. They formed legitimate groups and spread propaganda to
members of the white southern population. Many similar groups to Citizens Council began in
different states with the same ideas. It is important to take into account the the opinions and
actions of the opposing groups to Ruby and integration because it can uncover more about
the debate and historical significance.
Haskins, James. Separate, but Not Equal: the Dream and the Struggle. New York: Scholastic, 1998.
Print.
Jim Hanskins’ book discussed the influences of the overall civil right movement, which
revealed that with a president pushing for civil rights, the people began to push more
aggressively in society. This difference in education between black and white children was
appalling, and with the Supreme Court’s decision, blacks had the law on their side too.
Bridges’ success with integrating schools led to integration in other public places with the
help of Martin Luther King’s marches and speeches for equality. Martin Luther King spoke
for equality in all aspects of life, not just education, but his actions were finally successful. A
law was written that stated that one could no longer be discriminated based on race.
Hennessey, Maureen Hart., and Anne Knutson. Norman Rockwell: Pictures for the American
People. Atlanta: High Museum of Art, 1999. Print.
Norman Rockwell’s painting inspired by Ruby Bridges is the focal point of Robert Coles’
chapter of the book. During Coles’ sessions with Brides he had her draw images of herself
during the integration. These drawings were similar to Rockwell’s painting of her, which
showed how much insight Rockwell had into Bridges’ experiences. Coles interviewed both
Ruby’s father and the father of a white girl who had been pulled out of the school and found
that both fathers had “intense interest” in the Rockwell painting. Their interests in the
painting were different and it showed how white and black people debated the integration
movement and how it affected their lives in different ways.
Irons, Peter H. Jim Crow's Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision. New York:
Viking, 2002. Print.
Irons discusses the implications of the decision of the Brown v. Board of Education case, and
argues that America’s schools have become “re-segregated” recently. The article highlights
the possible debate of whether Brown v. Board of Education actually helped to integrate
schools, or if it had no impact at all. He believes that even with the decision made, many
schools are more segregated now than in the 20th century. There has been much debate over
this argument: This book portrayed how much debate there has been in America following
the integration movement during the 1950’s and 1960’s and how the Brown v. Board of
Education has affected history and the continued segregation in schools today.
"Interview with Carl L. Bankston III." Telephone interview. 28 Dec. 2010.
Carl Bankston, a professor at Tulane University, provided us with the insight that integration
was a failure socially, but was a success legally. Bankston was the author A Troubled Dream,
which we read prior to conducting this interview. The laws set integration in place, but
society’s beliefs that segregation should remain caused the reverse ratio of blacks to whites in
public schools.
"Interview with Christopher Harter." E-mail interview. 12 Dec. 2010.
We conducted an email interview with Christopher Harter, who participated in a panel
discussion with the McDonogh Three and Dr. Alan Wieder. He also works for the Amistad
Research Center and has worked with Dr. Wieder in his studies. Harter also confirmed our
thesis, and believes that the school desegregation movement has been a failure in the long
run, but has also had some successes.
"Interview with Dr. Alan Wieder." E-mail interview. 30 Nov. 2010.
We conducted an email interview with Dr. Alan Wieder, who has studied in depth the effects
of school desegregation in New Orleans. He provided us with his thoughts about the long
term successes and failures of Ruby Bridges’, and the McDonogh Three’s, attempts at
integration. He confirmed our thesis, and provided us with the insight that in order to have
successful school desegregation, America needs to put out a stronger effort to continue what
Bridges and the McDonogh Three began.
"Interview with Robert Heinrich." Telephone interview. 17 Dec. 2010.
Robert Heinrich, a professor at Brandeis University, provided us with much insight about the
long term effects of integration. The most important piece of information drawn from this
interview was the fact that the NAACP played a huge role in integration. Additionally, he
said that if the courts had been more aggressive after the brown decision then things could
have been shaped much differently, and integration may have been a success. He said that
integration was ultimately a failure because there were too many loopholes in the system,
leading to a resegregated system.
"Interview with Stephen Caldas." Telephone interview. 18 Mar. 2011.
We got the opportunity to speak with Caldas, the coauthor of A Troubled Dream. From him,
we learned that due to the debates over the integration of New Orleans schools, many
politicians chose not to outwardly support integration. They thought that if they supported
integration, they might not be elected.
Jerome, Richard. “Keeper of the flame. (Ruby Bridges Hall; woman who helped integrate Louisiana
school in 1960).” People Weekly 4 Dec. 1995: 104+. Academic OneFile.Web. 20 Sept. 2010
The Gale Group article gives an account of Ruby Bridges experience in 1960 when Ruby
was the first black child to be admitted into the all white William Frantz Elementary School.
It tells of her thoughts of the scene when she arrived at the school for the first time and the
empty class room she learned in all year as a solo student of Miss Barbara Henry. The article
fades between her present life and the history of her life as a child, not just focusing on her
past experience but how it has affected her life today. It exemplifies the significance of
equality, despite race or color. The struggle between the white racists, who wanted to keep
Ruby out, and the press, who wanted to have equality among every human in America, also
brought out the opposing values of order and liberty. The order of the community was
disturbed by the angry crowds gathered outside the school each day, while attempts of liberty
in the form of equal education were contradictory toward each other. Facts of her later life
were mentioned such as the foundation she started called the Ruby Bridges Foundation to
address problems that schools face.
Judson, George. “Child of Courage Joins Her Biographer; Pioneer of Integration Is Honored With
the Author She Inspired. (Metropolitan Desk).” New York Times 1 Sept. 1995. Academic
OneFile. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.
This New York Times article summarizes Robert Coles’ and Ruby Bridges’ relationship.
From this article, it became understood that Bridges inspired Coles to pursue his career of
writing about children’s psychology. The article showed how Bridges was successful in
impacting the lives of many people and causing some people to change their whole lives to
help others. It also states Coles’ curiosity and surprised reaction to the scene outside William
Frantz Elementary School the day Bridges first attended. That day inspired some of Coles’
life’s work which could have been referenced and used an unknown amount of times along
with providing insight to how children under great stress react.
"The Little Rock Nine." Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site. National Park
Service- U.S. Department of Interior. Web. 18 Oct. 2010.
The nine students each had their own story of what it was like to attend an all white
school, their first day, how it affected the rest of their lives. The story of the nine high
school students is significant to both Ruby Bridges and the history of the United
States. Their stories were not identical to Ruby’s but had some corresponding aspects
such as the angry mob, proving that Ruby’s story is significant because of its
differences. The Little Rock Nine’s story is also important to U.S. history because it
affected the course of history. It was after the Little Rock Nine that larger amounts of
black students were admitted into white schools, including Ruby Bridges. The
students were not welcomed in their school with open arms; many eventually left the
school and graduated some other way because of the difficulties they experienced.
Loyola Institute for Quality and Equity in Education. "New Orleans Full Report." The State of
Public Schools in New Orleans (2010). Web. 15 Dec. 2010.
This scholarly journal talks of the challenges of creating equal opportunity in public schools
after hurricane Katrina. It proves that the integration was a failure ultimately, especially after
hurricane Katrina because they did not even take the time or money to rebuild Wiliam Frantz
Elementary school. Also before Katrina the school was nearly a hundred percent black so the
integration resulted in the complete opposite as before Bridges went to William Frantz.
MacDonald, Bridget. "West Roxbury's Barbara Henry Taught Ruby Bridges during Civil Rights
Era." Wicked Local. GateHouse Media, Inc., 20 Jan. 2010. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.
Bridget MacDonald’s article about Barbara Henry provided insight into the significance of
Ruby Bridges’ actions. The students at the schools she visited found it strange that there was
ever a time when students were separated based on race. From this source, it was understood
that the integration of school Bridges’ attended helped to prevent the segregation of public
schools in the future. This article also supports the hypothetical debate on how vital Ruby’s
actions were in the Integration of not only the other regional schools, but Integration across
America. It is also debatable that the children of today do not know what segregation is
because of Ruby Bridges actions as a six year old.
Mac, Toby, and Michael Tait. "." CBN.com. The Christian Broadcasting Network. Web. 17 Oct.
2010.
From this website, it became clear that white parents were extremely against integration, as
there was only one white child in attendance with the three black children at McDonogh No.
19, which normally had 467 students, and there were only three white children in attendance
with Bridges at William Frantz Elementary School, which normally had 567 students.
Integration was so debated that the less than 1% of the normal student body continued to go
to school. As the school year went on, more children began to come back to the schools, but
the white children were never put in the same class room as the black children. This was a
consequence of the integration of southern schools because blacks and whites were not
actually educated together, but rather separately.
McDowell, Wendy S. "HDS - News - Ruby Bridges." Harvard Divinity School. 5 Nov. 2002. Web.
17 Sept. 2010.
Wendy S. McDowell’s article gave insight into Robert Coles’ relationship with Ruby
Bridges. This relationship was an important aspect to Ruby’s experience because it later
proved to provide information on how Ruby was affected by her experience, which could
support the debate of integration was worth the sacrifices made by the first black students to
integrate schools. As a Harvard psychologist Coles went to Bridges’ house everyday to talk
with her about her experiences free of charge. Through his understanding of Bridges he
became a practicing child’s psychoanalyst. In 1995, Bridges, with the help of Coles,
published her book, The Story of Ruby Bridges. Coles found Bridges’ story one which others
can learn how the pressure of her controversial situation was debated among society. He
helped Bridges realize that she was just as deserving of a good education as the whites were.
His services gave Bridges the opportunity to continue on her successful journey of
integration.
McMillan, George. "The Ordeal of Bobby Cain": Racial Confrontation at a Newly Integrated
Southern High School." History Matters: The U.S. Survey Course on the Web. Web. 26 Oct.
2010.
George McMillan retells the experience of Bobby Cain, as one of the first students to
integrate a school in Clinton Tennessee. This has a large amount of significance in American
History because it is one of the records of an injustice that was only changed in the last
century. The story of Bobby Cain can also be compared with Ruby Bridges to highlight the
differences between their experiences and what separates them. Bobby was different then
Ruby in that he knew there would be a major upset when he attended the new school. He
accepted the fact that people hate him and decided to go to school and deal with the
antagonizing then not get an education at all. Mobs were form outside the school each
morning because of Bobby and a few other students which almost convinced them not to
return to school, however Bobby’s mother insisted that he continue and gain a better
education.
Morland, John Kenneth. Token Desegregation and Beyond. Atlanta, GA: Southern Regional
Council, 1963. Print.
J. Kenneth Morland writes a short account of the effects of school desegregation. This
journal pertains to the theme of debate because it disproves some of the claims made by the
white population to discourage integration, which supports the argument of if desegregation
was a correct decision made by the court. In one chapter titled “Fears associated with School
Integration,” Morland mentions a conference held where superintendents of Nashville and of
Baltimore schools were asked how integration has affected the academic achievements of the
schools. The Superintendent of Nashville reported that there was no effect on the
“educational success of the students.” The Superintendent of Baltimore, which had a much
larger amount of students integrated, was asked the same question he also replied that the
academic standards were unaffected. Tables and statistics were also included to prove the
point that integration has not disrupted the children’s academic success.
Morse, Kathryn. "Desegregation of Public Schools: 1960-1971." Suite101.com: Online Magazine
and Writers' Network. 9 Feb. 2001. Web. 06 Nov. 2010.
This article gives insight into the efforts made by the Louisiana Legislature to restrict the
integration of education. Because the Governor of Louisiana was working so hard to stop
desegregation, it was consequently even more difficult to follow the federal orders to
integrate. His efforts were significant because in the years following, many white parents
pulled their children out of the integrated schools and enrolled them in private white schools.
Today, one can still see the effects of his efforts, as more than 90% of the children in public
New Orleans schools are black. Governor Davis successfully fulfilled his goal of keeping the
New Orleans schools segregated.
"Our Documents - Home." Welcome to OurDocuments.gov. Web. 17 May 2011.
This website gave us access to information on the Plessy v. Ferguson court case decision.
This was useful because we gained background information on discrimination and
segregation inflicted towards blacks. We used this in our timeline to show examples court
cases that were intended to be enforced to give blacks equal rights, but were never enforced
in the public. This shows how de jure desegregation does not ensure de facto desegregation.
"Raleigh's First Public School Integration Effort." The Joe Holt Story. Web. 26 Oct. 2010.
Joe Holt was a boy living in Raleigh, North Carolina who applied to go to an all white school
but was refused. His story, like many others is an important piece of American history
because it was the beginning of a transformation from segregated and divided communities
to an equal and free nation. Joe Holt fought for three years in court to be admitted into an all
white school but what not allowed because the court claimed that the Holt family did not
follow procedure and therefore the schools had the right to deny him, though segregation had
been outlawed. The Holt family was the first in Raleigh to go against the segregation system,
similar to Ruby who was the first in a small group of young children to attend an all white
school.
Rinaldo, Denise. "Ruby Bridges." Against the Odds: Four True Life Stories about Courage.New
York, NY: Kids, 2002. 25-29. Print.
This book contained background information on Ruby Bridges’ life and described why she
key to the Civil Rights Movement. Bridges was one of six African American children to be
selected to attend an all-white school in the South. Along with two other black girls, she was
to attend William Frantz School, while three other black girls were to attend a different all
white school. However, the two girls who were to attend with Bridges decided not to come
and Ruby had to attend the all-white school alone. She stayed strong and attended William
Frantz School for a whole year without missing any days of school and without showing any
fear. She was successful in integrating the William Frantz School in New Orleans as the next
year that she attended that school black students and white students went to the school
together.
Road to equal rights." WR News, Senior Edition [including Science Spin] 26 Feb. 2010: S5+.General
OneFile. Web. 29 Sept. 2010.
“Road to Equal Rights” shows the chronology of many significant events in the Civil Rights
movement. This timeline of events and people shows how each person builds on anothers
actions, and supports the possible hypothesis that without one leader or person’s action, the
civil rights movement may have not been as successful as it has been. Bridges and the other
three students followed the group known as “Little Rock Nine” in the integration process.
Ruby Bridges was among other figureheads such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King,
whose courageous actions together fought against debate of the Civil Rights movement
among society.
"Rosa Parks Biography -- Academy of Achievement." Academy of Achievement Main Menu. Web.
17 May 2011.
This website gave us access to information on Rosa Park’s movement to end bus segregation.
This was useful because of the background information on discrimination and segregation
inflicted towards blacks. We used this in our timeline to show examples of past events that
pushed for desegregation and influences of the desegregation process.
Rose, Chris. "Ruby Bridges' Long Walk." Carl Bernofsky - Welcome to Tulanelink. The TimesPicayune Publishing Corporation, 19 Jan. 2009. Web. 10 Oct. 2010.
Chris Rose writes in his article about Ruby’s life and how she feels today. Most of the article
hits upon the experiences of her first day of William Frantz School. He also touches upon
what she is thinking and involved in today. Bridges feels her life was a success and enjoys
talking to children around the country about her experience and she feels that it makes them
feel empowered to hear that a six year old was able to face crowds of people. She was also
successful in establishing the Ruby Bridges Foundation to assist schools with materials and
other necessities for a better learning environment. Bridges states that her message to the
world is similar to Obama’s message of inclusion. She believes in teaching children that to
accomplish greatness we have to set our differences aside and work together.
“Ruby Bridges.” Biography Resourse Center. Detroit: Gale, 2009. Gale Biography In Context. Web.
29 Sept. 2010.
Ruby Bridges marked by this article as “a symbol of change”, shows how influential
Bridges’ was in passage through William Frantz Elementary School. Ruby today has her own
foundation, and has written books of her own, however Ruby’s experiences gave others
inspiration for their own novels and paintings. Writes John Steinbeck wrote of the debated
the Ruby face by going to William Frantz with his book, Travels with Charley. Also, Norman
Rockwell’s painting entitled “The Problem We All Live With” show what controversy
Bridges and the Negro community faced.
"Ruby Bridges, Child Civil Rights Pioneer | Pajamadeen.com." Pajamadeen - WordPress Web
Development | WordPress Web Design | WordPress Tutoring | SEO. Pajamadeen, 21 Jan.
2008. Web. 16 Oct. 2010.
This website states that Ruby Bridges was the first attempt to integrate New Orleans public
schools since the Brown v. Board of Education law stated that the segregation of schools was
unequal and unconstitutional. She was supposed to attend the William Frantz school with two
other African American girls, but they backed out at the last minute and Bridges had to face
the threats alone. Her success was due to her courage and her faith. She prayed everyday for
the people who were threatening her. She believes that she would not have made it through
the year successfully without prayer. She was one of the first successful integration stories in
New Orleans at the time and influenced people to also make steps toward integration.
“Ruby Bridges.” Contemporary Black Biography. Vol. 77. Gale, 2010. Reproduced in Biography
Resource Center: African Americans. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Gale, Cengage Learning.
2010.
The biographical essay about Ruby Bridges from Gale Cengage Learning described Bridges’
life, from the time she began attending William Frantz Elementary School, to her adult life.
The most important information drawn from this source included the facts that she was born
only sixteen weeks following the Brown v. Board of Education case was decided. Because
this case decided that it was unconstitutional to have “separate but equal” schools the process
of integration began. This essay clearly portrayed the feelings of hatred Bridges felt upon her
walk into the school. The protesters’ emotions and actions, described in the article, were a
consequence Ruby’s desegregation movement.
"Ruby (Nell) Bridges." Contemporary Authors Online. Gale Biography In Context, 2002. Web. 16
Sept. 2010.
This source is an overview of Ruby Bridges life, focusing on events that occurred in Ruby’s
life at age six when she entered the William Franz Elementary School. Details on how
Ruby’s attendance of the all white school affected the people who surrounded her were also
included. Her father lost his job because of the integration and her grandparents were forced
off the farm they had worked at for over twenty years. A man whom she also came in contact
with was Robert Coles, a child psychologist who would later publish articles about Ruby.
This article gave the mentality of a little girl who had no background of what was going on,
or why there was such anger channeled toward her and her family for transferring schools. It
could be useful to making a profile of the two opposing parties in the conflict, possibly
leading to research into the other party’s mentality and opinions.
"School Desegregation - The Busing Debate." JRank. Web. 17 Oct. 2010.
Busing students to schools as an effort to support the integration of schools was a
controversial action. It raises the debate of if it is correct to bus students. Supporters of
busing claim it creates equal opportunity, and it is an affordable way to create school
desegregation while those who are against it maintain that busing is a distraction to quality
education. They believe that school boards will be to focused on busing and integration to
actually have quality education. This idea could be applied to all school systems in that in a
previous time or a current date, integration is so much in focus that it may cause a decrease in
quality of the education students receive. Another question raised in the article is if the
integration of schools should be a priority for public schools because it may distract them.
The topic of busing is highly controversial and an important part to the understanding of how
integration has effected American history.
Sharp, Anne Wallace. Separate but Equal: the Desegregation of America's Schools. Detroit, MI:
Lucent /Thomson Gale, 2007. Print.
Sharps’ book is a chronological timeline of desegregation in America. The diplomacy of the
Supreme Court’s decisions regarding Negro students, to progression of the state courts
implementing these laws are described in depth. The Jim Crow Law of separate, but equal,
turned into separate, but unequal. This oppression was relieved with Brown vs. Board of
Education decision, but then implementing these laws in society was truly the challenge.
Also, the debates between the North and the South and about segregation are covered. This
source made it clear that the North was fighting for desegregation, causing conflict with the
South. The North’s initial attempts at integration were at first a failure, but after they
continued to fight for the rights of blacks, it soon became a success.
Steinhorn, Leonard, and Barbara Diggs-Brown. By the Color of Our Skin: the Illusion of Integration
and the Reality of Race. New York: Dutton, 1999. Print.
Steinhorn’s and Diggs-Brown’s book debates whether or not integration ever really occurred.
This debate is an important piece of evidence for the theme of debate and of whether what
Ruby Bridges lived through was beneficial to generations that came after her. They believe
that integration was not successful, with the arguments that only five percent of American
cities could be considered racially integrated and seventy percent of black children go to
predominantly black schools. From this book it became clear that although the Civil Rights
Movement attempted to rid American of segregation and racism, it was not entirely
successful.
Shoemaker, Don. With All Deliberate Speed; Segregation-desegregation in Southern Schools. New
York: Harper & Row, 1957. Print.
With All Deliberate Speed, shows the comparison how each region of the United States and
how rapidly they started to integrate schools, after they were forced to by the federal
government, or their state governments. This comparison showed that in the Deep South the
overall resistance to integration was higher than in other regions. Also, the percentage of
Negro’s in the Deep South was larger than in other regions. There is a correlation to the
percentage of Negro’s to the resistance to integrate. The other regions were moving to
integration “With All Deliberate Speed” however the debate in the southern region was
against integration and dragged on the integration process.
"The Story of Ruby Bridges." Black History Review: Honoring African-American Achievement.
BlackHistoryReview.com, 2003-2010. Web. 23 Nov. 2010.
This book review of Robert Cole’s book, The Story of Ruby Bridges, provides a short
summary of what the book is about. It explains Bridges feelings throughout her time at
William Frantz Elementary school. The review states that the pictures in the book capture the
emotions she felt during her walk into school each morning and how she felt being alone for
most of the school year. The review gives positive feedback on the book and states that
everyone should read the book to further their knowledge of the subject. It also provides
insight on the credibility of the source because Robert Coles attended Harvard and worked
with children for many years. Also he was with Bridges throughout her journey and helped
her overcome her fears and difficulties.
Strachan, Sue. "Ruby Bridges." New Orleans Magazine. Renaissance Publishing, LLC, Oct. 2010.
Web. 9 Oct. 2010.
This article gives general background information about Bridges’ life, as well as her plans for
William Frantz Elementary in the future. She wants to fix up the school, and rename it Ruby
Bridges School of Community Service and Social Justice. After Hurricane Katrina hit, the
school was destroyed and she wants to rebuild to teach children early on about community
service. From this article, an invaluable piece of information that was drawn was the fact that
William Frantz needed to be integrated on more than one level. It was not as simple as one
black child attending the school, but also the integration of the all white teachers and all
white school board.
Thevenot, Brian. "The McDonogh Three." New Orleans, LA Local News. New Orleans Net LLC, 16
May 2004. Web. 17 Oct. 2010.
This article summarizes what happened to the three young black girls, Leona Tate, Tessie
Prevost and Gail Etienne, who attempted to integrate McDonogh Elementary School. The
integration of this school was ultimately a failure, as the white parents pulled their children
out of the school and they never came back; today the school is 100% black. Teachers at the
school would pinch their noses when the black children walked by, encouraging the students
to hit them. As a result, the black children transferred to a new school two years later, and the
white children stayed in the school with them. Because the integration of the second school
was a success, Tate and Etienne transferred to yet another school the next year. This was
their biggest success, with the principal forming a biracial student council, giving them
power within the school. Whenever arguments broke out, the superintendent would rule in
favor of the black students. Clearly, Tate, Etienne, and Prevost were successful in their
integration attempts.
"Trailblazer in Desegregation Gives Up on Public Education." New York Times 4 May 1982: A26.
ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 10 Oct. 2010.
This article was written in 1982 by a New York Times journalist. It gives insight into Bridges
life, including important decisions she had to make. At the time of the article she was a travel
agent, married with children. She says that she can only remember parts of the first year of
her attendance at William Frantz Elementary School and at first did not realize that the
screaming mobs were directed towards her. She has abandoned the public school system and
put all her children in private, Catholic schools, because she feels that public schools do not
teach enough material. Bridges says that “she regretted nothing” and would have acted as her
parents did. Bridges believes strongly in a good education and wants her children to have
opportunities like she did and be successful like she was.
Treanor, Nick. The Civil Rights Movement. San Diego: Greenhaven, 2003. 20-30. Print.
This book states that in 1954 the Supreme Court made a law that the South had to
work towards desegregation, but that the south did nothing to achieve integration and
the Supreme Court did not enforce the law until much later. The south challenged the
Supreme Court’s rulings and arguing that the rulings were an abuse of judicial power.
The south’s resistance caused organizations to form to fight against racism in the
United States and the debate on desegregation lasted long after the rulings were
issued. It was important for African Americans to fight back against the
discrimination to enforce the Supreme Courts laws themselves. Organizations, such
as the NAACP, were formed to use the laws in their favor to accomplish integration.
Eventually they were successful and schools started to become integrated throughout
the south.
"White Citizens' Councils Aimed to Maintain 'Southern Way of Life'" Homes Galore Jacksonsun.com. 2003. Web. 18 Oct. 2010.
Citizens Council was a white association against the integration of white schools and
society. As an important part of America’s past, it was groups like these that slowed,
or attempted to slow, the integration of schools. If these groups had been successful in
what they were trying to achieve, America would still have separated societies based
on color. The first council started in Greenwood Mississippi not long after the Brown
vs. Board of Education decisions were announced. Many other Citizens’ Councils
were opened in other towns and states such as the Federation for Constitutional
Government. The members of the groups viewed integration as a disruption to their
traditions and heritage and refused to allow it to happen.
Wisconsin. Congressional Record Statement. Senator. U.S. Senator Russ Feingold. By Russ
Feingold. 10 Nov. 2009. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.
This statement given by US Senator Russ Feingold urges that the US Congress pass a
resolution to dedicate a holiday to Ruby Bridges, one of the first black children to
successfully integrate an all-white school in New Orleans in the 1960s. Her impact on
America was so strong that a group of 1st graders in Milwaukee got thousands of
signatures on a petition to dedicate a holiday to her. They sent this petition to the
president of the United States to ask for his approval, and the Wisconsin Senator
Feingold wrote this statement to urge his colleagues to pass the resolution to honor
Bridges. She was significant in the Civil Rights movement and successfully
integrating an all-white school, and this resolution is evidence of her profound impact
on society.
Pictography: 80
14th Amendment
http://www.laits.utexas.edu/txp_media/html/cons/features/0206_01/slide4.gif
Alan Wieder:
http://streetpixx.com/Other/My-Smug-Mug/7507140_RhtNi#484693952_eXNg9-M-LB
A.P. Tureaud
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_oVuiCMYsM1E/S4gDtFQ65CI/AAAAAAAAACM/T5MQbXWAoLY/s
400/tua0001.jpg
Black School 1:
http://www.blackpast.org/?q=perspectives/remembering-brown-silence-loss-rage-and-hope
Black School 2:
http://thefastertimes.com/hate/2010/02/23/chartering-jim-crow/
Bridges and Henry 1:
Through My Eyes
Bridges and Henry 2:
http://www.iberkshires.com/images/feature/1288190027.jpg
Bridges entering the car:
http://rubybridges.com/images/pic5.gif
Bridges walks to school:
http://api.ning.com/files/6JiU5tJ3v23zIPcPfFz1oT3ezCxzbpAIR0fLIsvhmvHCttf*EM2LBBppwjtQ
6Xv3g2zha7p4I3wd5zXerUgdh8IrM6MylndM/RubyBridges.jpg
Bridges with friends:
http://www.childrensmuseum.org/themuseum/powerofchildren/html/rubybridgesUOS.pdf
Bridges with Henry:
http://www.childrensmuseum.org/themuseum/powerofchildren/html/rubybridgesUOS.pdf
Bridges with Students:
http://www.philasun.com/uploads/SuperSizerTmp/971/oasis_10-10-10a.-w456-h303-p0-q70-FaS1.jpg?1286807473
Brown v. Board 2:
http://sites.google.com/site/englishlanguage495/law-language
Brown, Linda:
http://www.nathanielturner.com/images/New_Folder3/lingabrownchild.jpg
Buchanan v. Warley
http://blogs.dickinson.edu/hist-404pinsker/files/2010/11/1917-buchanan-warley.jpg
Colored Water Fountain:
http://lisawallerrogers.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/jimcrowpic3.jpg
Colored Only:
http://beauwriter.files.wordpress.com/2010/01/womancoloredonly2.jpg
Daisy Gabrielle:
http://rubybridges.com/images/pic8.gif
Davis:
http://www.lva.virginia.gov/exhibits/brown/images/04042001.jpg
Davis 2:
http://www.nndb.com/people/928/000094646/jimmiedavis03.jpg
Dwight D. Eisenhower:
http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/all_about_ike/Quotes/Quotes.html#civilrights
Guinn v. United States
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/odyssey/archive/07/0719001r.jpg
Integration:
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-brown.html
Jimmie Davis:
http://kenturneronline.com/images/gov-JamesDavis.jpg
Jim Crow Must Go:
http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/media_content/m-10469.jpg
John McKeithen:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_mckeithen
Judge Skelly Wright:
http://negroartist.com/CIVIL%20RIGHTS%20IMAGERY1/slides/Judge%20J.%20Skelly%20Wrigh
t,%201981.%20Courtesy%20New%20Orleans%20TimesPicayune..jpg
Linda:
http://faculty.mdc.edu/jmcnair/EDG2701%20All%20Classes/6_large.jpg
McDonogh. 19
http://www.dalepogue.com/schoolda2.jpg
Martin Luther King
http://cdn.babble.com/strollerderby/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/i-have-a-dream-speech-martinluther-king.jpg
McDonogh Three:
http://media.nola.com/education_impact/photo/9043951-large.jpg
Milwaukee Honors Bridges:
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_iPhsZcTpW08/S4KoGwhau2I/AAAAAAAAAY0/ERz8zXTJctU/s320/ru
by+bridges.jpg
NAACP:
www.naacp.org/NAACP.jpg
NAACP 2:
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_kC5MT2r5U8s/TFRVz2bLlnI/AAAAAAAAP1g/TCDjrAAuBh8/s1600/n
aacp+logo+large.jpg
Norman Rockwell:
http://www.purplecar.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/normanrockwell.jpg
Norman Rockwell Quality:
http://parkwestgallery.files.wordpress.com/2010/01/rockwell_the-problem-we-all-live-with.jpg
Onlookers:
http://rubybridges.com/images/pic2.gif
Plessy v Ferguson:
http://www.culturequest.us/ecomm/annstillman/plessy%20pic.jpg
Policemen:
http://rubybridges.com/images/pic1.gif
Population of New Orleans:
http://www.journalofamericanhistory.org/projects/katrina/img/fussell01b.jpg
Protestors:
http://rubybridges.com/images/pic3.gif
Protestors 2:
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_oVuiCMYsM1E/S9Xokn8VPeI/AAAAAAAAAGI/TZ0Rb6L77FA/s1600
/wia0001.jpg
Protestors 3:
http://rubybridges.com/images/pic9.gif
Protesting Desegregation:
http://www.oxfordaasc.com/public/features/archive/0507/images/pe0011-01.jpg
The Problem We All Live With:
http://www.pajamadeen.com/images/school-desegregation-the-problem-we-all-live-with-normanrockwell.jpg
Racial Composition:
http://www.journalofamericanhistory.org/projects/katrina/img/fussell01b.jpg
Rosa Parks on the Bus
http://www.educationalsynthesis.org/famamer/images/RParks-bus.jpg
Ruby Bridges:
http://rubybridgesfacts.com/images/ruby_bridges.jpg
Ruby Bridges1:
http://rubybridgesbiography.com/images/ruby_bridges.jpg
Ruby Bridges 2:
http://www.hds.harvard.edu/news/images/archived_article_images/rubybridges.jpg
Ruby Bridges 3:
http://content.scholastic.com/yawyr/Uploads/rubybridges.jpg
Ruby Bridges and Federal Marshals:
http://blog.mawbooks.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/ruby-bridges-and-federal-marshalls.jpg
Ruby Bridges at Home:
http://www.fjc.gov/history/bushvorleans.nsf/Bridges.jpg!OpenImageResource
Ruby Bridges Foundation:
http://www.irespect.net/images/Ruby%20Bridges%20Logo.gif
Ruby Bridges Honored on November 14th:
http://laurendo.files.wordpress.com/2006/10/rb.jpg
Ruby Brides Portrait:
http://www.thegrio.com/assets_c/2009/10/ruby-thumb-400xauto-4400.jpg
Ruby Bridges Project:
http://imprint-tv.blogspot.com/2010/02/5th-graders-campaign-lands-honor-for.html
Ruby Bridges With Friends:
http://www.childrensmuseum.org/themuseum/powerofchildren/html/images/fam_guide_03.jpg
Ruby Entering William Frantz:
http://rubybridgespictures.com/images/ruby_bridges_enters_school.jpg
Ruby Escorted to William Frantz:
http://marquetteeducator.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/ruby_bridges.jpg
Ruby Today:
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_aPl4tm2lJaM/SXR6B3EXHVI/AAAAAAAAC7w/csatJkzw7E/s400/nn_savidge_bridges_070115_300w.jpg
Ruby With Mother and Marshals:
http://images2.fanpop.com/image/photos/9300000/Rube-Bridges-the-1st-African-American-to-goto-an-all-white-school-racism-free-9349462-402-325.jpg
School Girls:
http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/2006/12/10/weekinreview/10liptak.600.jpg
Segregation:
https://d189d6a00s48y7.cloudfront.net/imagecache/fpage/files/cck_images/14thamend_1283386858.
jpg
Separate But Equal:
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_2XdbIDH0Cwg/RoRvVkdGtvI/AAAAAAAACU8/y4P5CyNl4AM/s400/
Screenshot8.jpg
Segregated Public Facilities:
http://us.history.wisc.edu/hist102/weblect/lec02/race_colored_fountain.jpg
Separate Water Fountains:
http://www.history.com/minisites/blackhistory/timeline/assets/images/large/1896_separate_but_equa
l.jpg
We Want Segregation:
The Milwaukee Sentinel November, 1960
We Protest Segregation:
http://attendingtheworld.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/segregation.jpg
White Children Leaving the School:
http://rubybridges.com/images/pic7.gif
White Protesters:
http://www.rubybridges.com/images/pic9.gif
White School:
http://www.haddontwphistoricalsociety.org/photos--schools--jennings.htm
White School 2:
http://www.uigarden.net/english/is-design-political
Whites Only:
http://bigmikescience.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/help-wanted-jim-crow.jpg
William Frantz
http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2528/4158245833_77d2cd40a5_m.jpg
William Frantz 2004-2005:
http://rickruger.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/220117000889.png?w=266&h=165
William Frantz after Katrina
http://rubybridgesfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Picture-6.jpg
William Frantz Elementary:
http://www.tc.columbia.edu/i/media/bridges3.jpg
William Frantz before Hurricane Katrina
http://rubybridgesfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Picture-6.jpg
William Frantz Integrated:
http://www.philasun.com/uploads/SuperSizerTmp/971/oasis_10-10-10a.-w456-h303-p0-q70-FaS1.jpg?1286807473
Yolanda and her Mother:
http://www.corbisimages.com/Enlargement/U1257847.html?id=U1257847&ext=1
Videography: 11
Bridges Walking In:
http://crdl.usg.edu/cgi/crdl?action=retrieve;rset=004;recno=5;format=_video
Lloyd Rittiner
http://crdl.usg.edu/cgi/crdl?action=retrieve;rset=003;recno=2;format=_video
Matt Sutherland:
http://crdl.usg.edu/cgi/crdl?action=retrieve;rset=008;recno=1;format=_video
MSNBC Nightly News:
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16636708/ns/nightly_news
New Orleans Public Schools-Left Behind
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
Orleans Parish School Board President Speaking out Against Desegregation:
http://crdl.usg.edu/cgi/crdl?action=retrieve;rset=006;recno=2;format=_video
Pam Testroet
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tenj6N5FiKQ&NR=1&feature=fvwp
Protestors and Legislators:
http://crdl.usg.edu/cgi/crdl?action=retrieve;rset=003;recno=3;format=_video
Through My Eyes:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ajE9G4aUJRA
Wisdom From A Trailblazer: Ruby Bridges Talks Racism In Education:
http://www.npr.org/2010/12/01/131727013/Wisdom-From-A-Trailblazer-Ruby-Bridges-TalksRacism-In-Education
Yolanda Walking In:
http://crdl.usg.edu/cgi/crdl?action=retrieve;rset=004;recno=4;format=_video
Discography: 2
Dwight D. Eisenhower:
http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/all_about_ike/Speeches/WAV%20files/Little%20Rock.mp3
The Ruby Bridges Story:
http://vimeo.com/groups/22252/videos/16946836