A
actuator
adaptive
behaviours
address
address bus
ADSL
algorithm
alphanumeric
ampere
analog
analog to digital
conversion ADC
AND
ANSI
anthropopathic
robots
A power mechanism used to effect motion of the robot; a device that
converts electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic energy into robot motion.
The means by which robots interact with a changing world using a
spectrum of machine learning techniques including neural networks,
fuzzy logic and evolutionary computing.
An unsigned integer used to select one fundamental element of
storage, usually known as a word from a computer's main memory or
other storage device.
The connections between the CPU and memory which carry the
address from/to which the CPU wishes to read or write. The number of
bits of address bus determines the maximum size of memory which the
processor can access.
(Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) A method of connecting a
computer to the internet over an ordinary phone line using an ethernet
card instead of a modem producing a much faster connection.
Asymmetric because it is faster from internet to PC than the other way
(also true of a 56K modem).
A procedure for accomplishing a given result by proceeding on a logical
step-by-step basis. Computer programs and numerical control routines
for machine tools are developed this way.
A decimal digit or a letter (upper or lower case). Typically, "letters"
means only English letters (ASCII A-Z plus a-z) but it may also include
non-English letters in the Roman alphabet, e.g., e-acute, c-cedilla, the
thorn letter, and so on.
The unit of measure of electric current intensity.
(UK: “analogue”) A description of a continuously variable signal or a
circuit or device designed to handle such signals. The opposite is
“discrete” or “digital”. Analogue circuits are much harder to design and
analyse than digital ones because the designer must take into account
effects such as the gain, linearity and power handling of components,
the resistance, capacitance and inductance of tracks, wires and
connectors, interference between signals, power supply stability and
more. A digital circuit design, especially for high switching speeds, must
also take these factors into account if it is to work reliably, but they are
usually less critical because most digital components will function
correctly within a range of parameters whereas such variations will
corrupt the outputs of an analogue circuit.
A device which takes a analog value and outputs a digital data which
represent the amplitude of the input value.
This is a boolean operation, which gives a result of true only when its
first input AND its second input are true.
(American National Standard Institute) The United States government
body responsible for approving US standards in many areas, including
computers and communications. ANSI is a member of ISO.
Robots that can foster and maintain emotional relationships with human
beings. Such robots not only perceive and respond to human emotion,
but also are possessed of an intrinsic emotional system modeled after
human beings. For these robots, emotional state is not merely an
outward expression, but rather permeates their control architecture and
influences their behaviour.
antivirus
application
program
arm
articulated robot
artificial
intelligence AI
artificial life (alife)
ASCII
assembler
assembly
language
Programs to detect and remove computer viruses. The simplest kind
scans executable files and boot blocks for a list of known viruses.
Others are constantly active, attempting to detect the actions of general
classes of viruses. antivirus software should always include a regular
update service allowing it to keep up with the latest viruses as they are
released
A complete, self-contained program that performs a specific function
directly for the user. This is in contrast to system software such as the
operating system
the part of a manipulator robot that positions the end-effector and
sensors to do their pre-programmed business. Robot arms come in all
shapes and sizes.
Many (but not all) resemble human arms, and have shoulders, elbows,
wrists, even fingers. These are commonly referred to as “jointed-arm”
robots.
Is a robot made up of all rotational joints. The motion of the robot is
similar to that of a human being.
The ability of computers to “think” in ways similar to human beings.
Examples might be reasoning, adaptation, decision making, and
learning from mistakes. At present, artificial intelligence has a long way
to go before machines can be considered truly “smart.” Present day
“AI” does allow machines to mimic certain simple human thought
processes, but can’t begin to match the quickness and complexity of
the brain.
Examples of AI problems are computer vision (building a system that
can understand images as well as a human) and natural language
processing (building a system that can understand and speak a human
language as well as a human). These may appear to be modular, but
all attempts so far (1993) to solve them have foundered on the amount
of context information and “intelligence” they seem to require. The term
is often used as a selling point, e.g. to describe programming that
drives the behaviour of computer characters in a game. This is often no
more intelligent than “Kill any humans you see; keep walking; avoid
solid objects; duck if a human with a gun can see you”.
A human made object that has the essential qualities of living things:
the ability to reproduce itself, consciousness, etc. To this date, no
proven forms of artificial life have been created- what exactly
constitutes “living” versus “non living” is the subject of much debate, on
both technological and philosophical fronts. Artificial Life complements
the traditional biological sciences concerned with the analysis of living
organisms by attempting to create lifelike behaviours within computers
and other artificial media.
The standard code using a coded character set consisting of 7-bit
coded characters (8 bits including parity check) that is used for
information interchange among data processing systems data
communication systems and associated equipment. The ASCII set
consists of control characters and graphic characters.
A program which converts assembly language into machine code.
A symbolic representation of the machine language of a specific
processor. Assembly language is converted to machine code by an
assembler. Usually, each line of assembly code produces one machine
instruction, though the use of macros is common. Programming in
assembly language is slow and error-prone but is the only way to
squeeze every last bit of performance out of the hardware.
asynchronous
Not synchronised by a shared signal such as clock, proceeding
independently.
automatic
Functioning in a predefined manner with a minimum of
reprogrammability. Assisted or run with the help of a machine and/or
computer.
automatic guided Are advanced material-handling or conveying systems that involve a
vehicles (AGV)
driverless vehicle which follows a guide-path.
autonomous
Functioning independently of other components or systems; selfgoverning or self-controlling.
AUV
Autonomous Underwater Vehicle. Is a robotized autonomous
submarine which is not connected to a remote station for guiding and
power supply.
axis
The line about which a rotating body (such as a robotic hand) turns.
B
bandwidth
In a general sense this term describes information-carrying capacity. It
can apply to telephone or network wiring as well as system buses and
radio frequency signals.
Basic
This standard high-level family of programming languages is simple to
learn but creates programs that are typically slow to use. The language
is not generally used for industrial-strength applications.
battery
A device that uses chemicals to produce electric current; provides
electrical power for things such as cars, flashlights, toys and, obviously,
robots.
baud
The unit in which the information carrying capacity or “signalling rate” of
a communication channel is measured.
behaviours
The primitive building blocks for robot control and action. Depending on
the control architecture, behaviours can be either simple stimulusresponse pairings or more complex rule based units for carrying out a
particular competency. Behaviours can be sequenced or run in parallel
to produce higher-level capabilities.
big endian
A format for storage or transmission of binary data in which the most
significant bit (or byte) is placed first. Contrast with little endian.
binary
The basic computer method of storing information in a series of
encoded 0 and 1s – or bits. Binary is manipulated with Arithmetic and
Boolean operations.
bit
A single binary-digit. May hold a single 0 or 1. Can also be expressed
as true or false, and on or off.
bits per second
A measure of how quickly information is being transferred usually via a
(bps)
modem or network. Divide by ten to get an approximation of the
number of characters per second (cps).
boolean
Boolean refers to George Boole. It is commonly used to describe the
logical operations of AND, NOT, OR and XOR, from which any other
logic gate may be constructed.
It operates on binary variables with only two possible values, “true” and
“false”.
boot block
A program at some fixed location on a hard disk, floppy disk or other
media, which is loaded when the computer is turned on or rebooted
bootstrap
bottom up
bridge
broadband
broadcast
browser
buffer storage
bug
bumper
bus
busy-wait
byte
C
C language
C++ language
and which controls the next phase of loading the actual operating
system. The loading and execution of the boot block is usually
controlled by firmware in ROM or PROM.
A technique for loading the first few instructions of a computer program
into active memory and then using them to bring in the rest of the
program
The opposite of top-down design. It is now received wisdom in most
programming cultures that it is best to design from higher levels of
abstraction down to lower, specifying sequences of action in increasing
detail until you get to actual code.
A functional unit that interconnects two local area networks that use the
same logical link control protocol but may use different medium access
control protocols
A transmission medium capable of supporting a wide range of
frequencies, typically from audio up to video frequencies. It can carry
multiple signals by dividing the total capacity of the medium into
multiple, independent bandwidth channels, where each channel
operates only on a specific range of frequencies.
A transmission to multiple, unspecified recipients. On Ethernet, a
broadcast packet is a special type of multicast packet which all nodes
on the network are always willing to receive.
If you can read this it’s highly likely that you’re using a Web browser. In
brief a browser is your interface to the World Wide Web; it interprets
hypertext links and lets you view sites and navigate from one Internet
node to another.
A place for storing information in either a computer or control unit so
that it is immediately available for action once the previous instructions
have been completed. Buffers eliminate the need to wait for information
to be transferred from a slower bulk storage medium into active
memory.
An unwanted and unintended property of a program or piece of
hardware, especially one that causes it to malfunction
Safety device that can detect contacts between the robot end the
environment or people.
One of the sets of conductors (wires, tracks or connections in an
integrated circuit) connecting the various functional units in a computer.
There are busses both within the CPU and connecting it to external
memory and peripheral devices. The data bus, address bus and control
signals, despite their names, really constitute a single bus since each is
useless without the others
To wait for an event by spinning through a tight loop or timed-delay
loop that polls for the event on each pass, as opposed to setting up an
interrupt handler and continuing execution on another part of the task.
A byte usually denotes 8 bits (also called an octet) which the computer
treats as a single unit. Abbreviated is uppercase B.
A language used to develop software applications in compact efficient
code that can be run on different types of computers with minimal
change.
One of the most used object-oriented languages, a superset of C. In
C++ a class is a user-defined type with data accessing functions. C++
combines if efficient like C but has much more expressive power.
cache
A small fast memory holding recently accessed data, designed to
speed up subsequent access to the same data. Most often applied to
processor-memory access but also used for a local copy of data
accessible over a network etc.
CAD
Computer-aided design; the use of computers to aid in product design
and development.
CAM
Computer-aided manufacturing; the use of computers to assist in any
or all phases of manufacturing. Numeric control is one form of CAM.
capacitor
An electronic device that can store electrical charge. The charge stored
Q in Coulombs is related to the capacitance C in Farads and the
voltage V across the capacitor in Volts by Q = CV. The basis of a
dynamic RAM cell is a capacitor.
cartesian
A system of two or three mutually perpendicular axes along which any
coordinates
point may be located in terms of distance and direction from any other
point.
CAT
Computer-aided testing; the use of computers to aid in the testing of
manufactured output.
cathode ray tube An electronic vacuum tube containing a screen on which graphic or
CRT
alphanumeric information may be displayed. Present in any television
set or traditional PC monitor.
CCD charge
The component of a scanner or digital camera which actually takes the
coupled device
pictures. The quality of image it is capable of is usually measured in
Megapixels - the higher the number the better the image.
central
The basic arithmetic and logic centre of a computer, that includes the
processing unit
circuits controlling the processing and execution of instructions.
CPU
chassis
The frame on which the body of a vehicle is built.
chip
Small piece of semiconductor material upon which electronic
components and subassemblies are formed. Integrated circuits, LSI
and VLSI are made on chips.
clock
The fundamental rate in cycles per second at which a computer
performs its most basic operations such as adding two numbers or
transferring a value from one register to another
closed-loop
A system whereby signals from a control unit are acted upon by the
system
machine effector or teleoperator, and a monitoring unit then returns the
acted upon signals for comparison; operates using feedback from
errors, thus achieving some level of self-correction; opposite of openloop.
coaxial cable
A kind of cable with a solid central conductor surrounded by insulator,
in turn surrounded by a cylindrical shield woven from fine wires. It is
used to carry high frequency signals such as video or radio. The shield
is usually connected to electrical ground to reduce electrical
interference
cognition
Programmed models which approximate the behaviour of natural
cognition, in the context of robotic and artificial intelligence systems.
COM port
Although it’s in all capital letters COM is not an acronym. It’s a
contraction of communications and it’s used to describe the serial port
on a PC. COM is generally used in conjunction with a number as in
COM1 COM2 COM3 or COM4.
compatibility
The degree to which hardware components, programming languages,
and software can be interchanged among various computer-controlled
systems.
compiler
A program that converts source code written in some programming
language to machine language (object code). Some compilers output
assembly language which is then converted to machine language by a
separate assembler. A compiler is distinguished from an assembler by
the fact that each input statement does not, in general, correspond to a
single machine instruction or fixed sequence of instructions.
compressed files Files whose file size has been reduced using a compression method.
Files are often compressed before sending them across a network in
order to ease network congestion and save server disk space.
computational
The number of steps or arithmetic operations required to solve a
complexity
computational problem.
computer
A machine that can be programmed to manipulate numbers and
symbols. Computers can perform complex and repetitive procedures
quickly, precisely and reliably and can quickly store and retrieve large
amounts of data. The physical components from which a computer is
constructed (electronic circuits and input/output devices) are known as
“hardware”. Most computers have four types of hardware component:
CPU, input, output and memory. The CPU (central processing unit)
executes programs (“software”) which tell the computer what to do.
Input and output (I/O) devices allow the computer to communicate with
the user and the outside world. There are several kinds of memory –
fast, expensive, short term memory (e.g. RAM) to hold intermediate
results, and slower, cheaper, long-term memory (e.g. magnetic disk
and magnetic tape) to hold programs and data between jobs.
configuration
connector
control
architecture
control flow
control program
controller (1)
controller (2)
Nowadays found in everything from children’s toys and wristwatches, to
automobiles and satellites.
The manner in which the hardware and software of an information
processing system are organized and interconnected.
The part of a cable that plugs into a port or interface to connect one
device to another.
The principled organization of embedded software components
whereby perception, reasoning, and action conspire to produce
functionality. This architecture not only provides structure and services,
but guides design by imposing methodological constraints on how
behaviour can be achieved.
The sequence of execution of instructions in a program. This is
determined at run time by the input data and by the control structures
used in the program
The inherent set of control instructions that defines the capabilities,
actions and responses of the robot system. This program is usually not
intended to be modified by the user.
Part of a computer, typically a separate circuit board, which allows the
computer to use certain kinds of peripheral devices. A disk controller is
used to connect hard disks and floppy disks, a network controller is
used for Ethernet. Other controllers are: keyboard controller, interrupt
controller and graphics controller.
Every robot is connected to a computer, which keeps the pieces of the
arm working together. This computer is known as the controller. The
controller functions as the “brain” of the robot. Robots today have
controllers that are run by programs – sets of instructions written in
code.
coprocessor
cross-assembler
cross-compiler
CS&T
cybernetics
cyberspace
D
data
data bus
datagram
deadlock
debugging
Almost all robots of today are entirely pre-programmed by people; they
can do only what they are programmed to do at the time, and nothing
else. In the future, controllers with artificial intelligence, or AI could
allow robots to think on their own, even program themselves. This
could make robots more self-reliant and independent.
Any computer processor which assists the main processor (the “CPU”)
by performing certain special functions, usually much faster than the
main processor could perform them in software. The coprocessor often
decodes instructions in parallel with the main processor and executes
only those instructions intended for it. The most common example is a
floating point coprocessor (or “FPU”), others are graphics and
networking.
An assembler which runs on one type of processor and produces
machine code for another.
A compiler which runs on one kind of system and produces code for
another, as opposed to a native code compiler which produces code for
the platform on which it runs.
Computer Science and Technology.
An emerging field of study that explores the integration of the human
nervous system and human-made technological devices, such as
microchips, robotic components, “nano” machines, and electronics.
(Coined by William Gibson) Notional “information-space” loaded with
visual cues and navigable with brain-computer interfaces called
“cyberspace decks”; a characteristic prop of cyberpunk SF. In 1991
serious efforts to construct virtual reality interfaces modelled explicitly
on Gibsonian cyberspace were already under way, using more
conventional devices such as glove sensors and binocular TV
headsets.
Numbers, characters, images, or other method of recording, in a form
which can be assessed by a human or (especially) input into a
computer, stored and processed there, or transmitted on some digital
channel. This information is almost always digital, or stored in the
binary form of 1’s and 0’s. Data on its own has no meaning, only when
interpreted by some kind of data processing system does it take on
meaning and become information. .
The bus (connections between and within the CPU, memory, and
peripherals) used to carry data. Other connections are the address bus
and control signals.
A self-contained, independent entity of data carrying sufficient
information to be routed from the source to the destination computer
without reliance on earlier exchanges between this source and
destination computer and the transporting network.
A situation where two or more processes are unable to proceed
because each is waiting for one of the others to do something.
Attempting to determine the cause of the symptoms of malfunctions
detected by testing or by frenzied user complaints.
dedicated
computer
degrees of
freedom (DOF)
deliberative
control
detector
deterministic
device
device driver
digital
digital signal
processor (DSP)
digital to analog
converter (DAC)
digitalizing
diode
domain name
domain name
server (DNS)
drag
A computer devoted exclusively to a single application.
The state of a robotic mechanism can be described by specifying the
current value of each variable parameter (particularly rotating or sliding
elements) of robot systems. A robot that could move up/down, left/right,
and in/out would have 3 degrees of freedom. The human arm (not
counting the hand) has 7 degrees of freedom.
In other words, it is the number of independent parameters required to
specify the position and orientation of an object. Often used to classify
robot arms. For example, an arm with six degrees of freedom could
reach any position close enough and could orient it’s end effector (grip
or tool etc.) at any angle about the three perpendicular axes.
Deliberative control architectures use internal, symbolic representations
such as maps, models, and knowledge bases to make decisions and
mediate actions. These classical AI (Artificial Intelligence) decision
processes are structured at a high enough level so as to be
understandable (and especially explainable) for the applications
programmer.
A device that is used to show that something is present.
Describes a system whose time evolution can be predicted exactly.
Something made or invented for some special use; a computer
component, a tool, machine, or other piece of equipment.
Software to control a hardware component or peripheral device of a
computer such as a magnetic disk, magnetic tape or printer.
Information and values are expressed in discrete terms. In a digital
computer such terms are generated by a combination of binary on/off
or positive/negative signals, the opposite of analog wherein a
fluctuating signal strength determines the fluctuations of values.
A special-purpose microprocessor designed to handle signalprocessing applications very quickly. DSPs are used in several classes
of computer hardware including sound cards modems telephony
boards that handle sound and modem functions and hardware that
handles audio and video compression in real time.
(DAC) A device which takes a digital value and outputs a voltage which
is proportional to the input value. Typical uses include digital generation
of audio signals.
The process of converting an image into digital data.
These semiconductor electronic components allow current to flow
through them in only one direction. Most people are familiar with lightemitting diodes (LEDs) which produce light when current is applied and
liquid-crystal diodes (LCDs) which lighten or darken a transparent
material when current is applied. LCDs are often used to create flatpanel displays for portable computers.
The textual name assigned to a host on the Internet. The Domain
Name Service (DNS) protocol translates between domain names and
numerical IP addresses.
In the Internet suite of protocols a server that responds to queries from
clients for name-to-address and address-to-name mappings as well as
for other information.
Resistance to motion of a vehicle through the air or water.
drift
drive
drive power
E
efficient
electromagnetic
compatibility
(EMC)
embedded
system
emergency stop
emulation
encoder
end effector
EPROM
Ethernet
executable file
F
fault tolerancy
feedback
To be carried along by a current of air or water.
The part of the robot that supplies power to move. It is the “engine” that
moves the links—sections between the joints—into their desired
position in manipulator robots, wheels in mobile robots, propellers in
underwater robots. Most drives are powered by electricity.
The energy source or sources for the robot actuators.
Bringing about the result that is wanted, with the least waste of time,
effort, or materials.
The extent to which a piece of hardware will tolerate electrical
interference from other equipment, and will interfere with other
equipment.
Hardware and software which forms a component of some larger
system and which is expected to function without human intervention. A
typical embedded system consists of a single-board microcomputer
with software in ROM, which starts running some special purpose
application program as soon as it is turned on and will not stop until it is
turned off (if ever).
The operation of a circuit using hardware-based components that
overrides all other robot controls, removes drive power from the robot
actuators, and causes all moving parts to stop.
One system is said to emulate another when it performs in exactly the
same way, though perhaps not at the same speed. A typical example
would be emulation of one computer by (a program running on)
another. You might use an emulation as a replacement for a system
whereas you would use a simulation if you just wanted to analyse it and
make predictions about it.
A very popular sensor device used in mobile robotics. It reads wheel
and axis motion and/or position, and translate it into digital form.
The “hand” connected to the robot’s arm. It is often different from a
human hand – it could be a tool such as a gripper, a vacuum pump,
tweezers, scalpel, blowtorch – just about anything that helps it do its
job. Some robots can change end-effectors, and be reprogrammed for
a different set of tasks.
If the robot has more than one arm, there can be more than one endeffector on the same robot, each suited for a specific task.
Unlike dynamic and static RAM, EPROM chips do not require power to
retain their data. Consequently EPROM chips are commonly used to
store BIOS information and basic software for modems video cards and
other peripherals. EPROMs can be erased by exposure to ultraviolet
light and then reprogrammed using a device called a PROM burner
A local area network hardware and protocol implementation, very
common and diffused in computer networking.
File that contains all the information necessary to start and run a
program on your computer.
The ability of a system or component to continue normal operation
despite the presence of hardware or software faults. This often involves
some degree of redundancy.
Information returned from the output of a machine or process intended
for use as output in subsequent operations or for purposes of automatic
feedback control
fiber optic
firmware
fixed point
flag
floating point
frame grabber
fuzzy logic
G
gate
control. Feedback is positive or negative, depending on the sign with
which a positive change in the original input reappears after
transformation. Negative feedback is used for stabilisation, positive
feedback can lead to instability.
A control system which monitors its effect on the system it is controlling
and modifies its output accordingly. For example, a thermostat has two
inputs: the desired temperature and the current temperature (the latter
is the feedback). The output of the thermostat changes so as to try to
equalise the two inputs. Complex systems such as the human body
contain many feedback systems that interact with each other; the
homeostasis mechanisms that control body temperature and acidity are
good examples.
Fiber-optic cables consist of thin filaments of glass (or other transparent
materials) which can carry beams of light. A laser transmitter encodes
frequency signals into pulses of light and sends them down the optical
fiber to a receiver which translates the light signals back into
frequencies. Less susceptible to noise and interference than other
kinds of cables optical fibers can transmit data greater distances
without amplification
Software stored in read-only memory (ROM) or programmable ROM
(PROM). Easier to change than hardware but harder than software
stored on disk. Firmware is often responsible for the behaviour of a
system when it is first switched on. A typical example would be a
“monitor” program in a microcomputer which loads the full operating
system from disk or from a network and then passes control to it.
Decimal number representation with fixed precision
A variable or quantity that can take on one of two values; a bit,
particularly one that is used to indicate one of two outcomes or is used
to control which of two things is to be done.
Decimal number representation with variable precision (greater is the
number, smaller is the precision).
A device that captures a single frame from an analog video signal (from
a video camera or VCR) and stores it as a digital image under
computer control.
A superset of Boolean logic dealing with the concept of partial truth –
truth values between “completely true” and “completely false”.
A low-level digital logic component. Gates perform Boolean functions
(e.g. AND, NOT), store bits of data (e.g. a flip-flop), and connect and
disconnect various parts of the overall circuit to control the flow of data
(tri-state buffer). In a CPU, the term applies particularly to the buffers
that route data between the various functional units. Each gate allows
data to flow from one unit to another or enables data from one output
onto a certain bus.
gauge
An instrument for measuring some physical quantity.
genetic algorithm An evolutionary algorithm which generates each individual from some
GA
encoded form known as a “chromosome” or “genome”. Chromosomes
are combined or mutated to breed new individuals. “Crossover”, the
kind of recombination of chromosomes found in sexual reproduction in
nature, is often also used in Gas. Here, an offspring’s chromosome is
created by joining segments chosen alternately from each of two
gigabyte GB
Global
Positioning
System GPS
H
hardware
hardwired
hazbot
heuristic
hexadecimal
high level
language
host
HTML
humanoid
robotics
parents’ chromosomes which are of fixed length. Gas are useful for
multidimensional optimisation problems in which the chromosome can
encode the values for the different variables being optimised.
2^30 = 1,073,741,824 bytes = 1024 megabytes. Roughly the amount of
data required to encode a human gene sequence.
(GPS) A system for determining position on the Earth’s surface by
comparing radio signals from several satellites. When completed the
system will consist of 24 satellites equipped with radio transmitters and
atomic clocks. Depending on your geographic location, the GPS
receiver samples data from up to six satellites, it then calculates the
time taken for each satellite signal to reach the GPS receiver, and from
the difference in time of reception, determines your location.
The physical, touchable, material parts of a computer or other system.
The term is used to distinguish these fixed parts of a system from the
more changeable software or data components which it executes,
stores, or carries.
Computer or computer controlled system which functions by means of
fixed or committed circuitry; reprogramming is possible only by altering
the nature of or interconnections among physical components.
A robot designed to take the place of a person in a hazardous job, such
as repairing nuclear reactors, fighting fires, and exploring planets that
are inhospitable to human beings.
A heuristic computer program is one which begins with only an
approximate method of solving a problem within the context of some
goal, and then uses feedback from the effects of the solution to improve
its own performance.
A number representation using the digits 0-9, with their usual meaning,
plus the letters A-F (or a-f) to represent hexadecimal digits with values
of (decimal) 10 to 15. The right-most digit counts ones, the next counts
multiples of 16, then 16^2 = 256, etc. For example, hexadecimal BEAD
is decimal 48813: digit weight value B = 11 16^3 = 4096 11*4096 =
45056 E = 14 16^2 = 256 14* 256 = 3584 A = 10 16^1 = 16 10* 16 =
160 D = 13 16^0 = 1 13* 1 = 13 ----- BEAD = 48813 There are many
conventions for distinguishing hexadecimal numbers from decimal or
other bases in programs. In C for example, the prefix “0x” is used, e.g.
0x694A11.
A programming language which provides some level of abstraction
above assembly language. These normally use statements consisting
of English-like keywords such as “FOR”, “PRINT” or “GOTO”, where
each statement corresponds to several machine language instructions.
A computer that is connected to a network (such as the Internet or an
SNA network) and provides an access point to that network.
As its name suggests HTML is a collection of formatting commands
that create hypertext documents—Web pages to be exact. When you
point your Web browser to a URL the browser interprets the HTML
commands embedded in the page and uses them to format the page’s
text and graphic elements.
Humanoid Robotics research includes a rich diversity of projects
wherein perception, processing and action are embodied in a
recognizably anthropomorphic form in order to emulate some subset of
hypertext
I
I/O address
the physical, cognitive and social dimensions of the human body and
experience. This work seeks to create a new kind of tool; fundamentally
different from any we have yet seen because it is designed to work with
humans as well as for them.
A term coined by Ted Nelson around 1965 for a collection of
documents (or “nodes”) containing cross-references or “links” which,
with the aid of an interactive browser program, allow the reader to
move easily from one document to another. The extension of hypertext
to include other media – sound, graphics.
Input/Output address. A hexadecimal number that is assigned to a
piece of hardware in a computer and then given to the software driver
for that piece of equipment so that they can communicate.
I/O device
Input or output equipment or programming, used to communicate with a
computer or control system.
I/O input/output
Communication between a computer and its users, its storage devices,
other computers (via a network) or the outside world. The devices the
computer uses to do this are called “peripherals”.
image
Data representing a two-dimensional scene. A digital image is
composed of pixels arranged in a rectangular array with a certain
height and width. Each pixel may consist of one or more bits of
information, representing the brightness of the image at that point and
possibly including colour information encoded as RGB triples. Images
are usually taken from the real world via a digital camera, frame
grabber, or scanner; or they may be generated by computer.
industrial robot
A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move
material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.
industrial robot
A system that includes industrial robots, the end-effectors, and the
system
devices and sensors required for the robots to be taught or
programmed, or for the robots to perform the intended automatic
operations, as well as the communication interfaces required for
interlocking, sequencing, or monitoring the robots.
infrared
Describing rays of light that are just beyond red in the colour spectrum.
Infrared light rays cannot be seen, by the naked eye, but can be seen
with special cameras. Used for wireless short range communication
and proximity detection.
integrated circuits A very small single structure assembly of electronic components
(Ics)
containing many circuits and functions on a chip.
intelligence
The ability to make appropriate decisions and take appropriate actions
in the face of uncertainty. The word ‘appropriate’ is best characterized
in context, and with reference to the task at hand. For example, some
tasks require that appropriate action maximize efficiency while others
may emphasize learning, survivability, robustness, or an ability to
communicate. Ultimately, intelligence is in the eye of the beholder. “We
know it when we see it.”
interactive
A term describing a program whose input and output are interleaved,
like a conversation, allowing the user’s input to depend on earlier
output from the same run. The interaction with the user is usually
conducted through either a text-based interface or a graphical user
interface. Other kinds of interface, e.g. using speech recognition and/or
interface
internet
Internet
internet address
Internet Protocol
IP
internet, Internet
interrupt
interrupt handler
intranet
ISDN
J
joint
joystick
K
Kilobyte
knowledge
L
laser
speech synthesis, are also possible.
The medium by which two separate elements of a computer system are
joined to permit mutual interaction.
Any set of networks interconnected with routers. The Internet
(capitalized) is the biggest example of an internet.
The Internet is the largest internet (with a small “i”) in the world.
An address that uniquely identifies a computer on an internet.
Protocol that carries individual packets between hosts and allows
packets to be automatically routed through multiple networks if the
destination host isn’t on the same network as the originating host.
Computer network that uses the internet protocol family. When
capitalized it refers to the single well known globally connected network
using those protocols.
An asynchronous event that suspends normal processing and
temporarily diverts the flow of control through an “interrupt handler”
routine. Interrupts may be caused by both hardware (I/O, timer,
machine check) and software (supervisor, system call or trap
instruction). In general the computer responds to an interrupt by storing
the information about the current state of the running program; storing
information to identify the source of the interrupt; and invoking a firstlevel interrupt handler.
A routine which is executed when an interrupt occurs. Interrupt
handlers typically deal with low-level events in the hardware of a
computer system such as a character arriving at a serial port or a tick of
a real-time clock.
Any network which provides similar services within an organisation to
those provided by the Internet outside it but which is not necessarily
connected to the Internet.
The plain old telephone system doesn’t handle large quantities of data
and the phone companies realized this a long time ago. So the ISDN
spec was hammered out in 1984 to allow for wide-bandwidth digital
transmission using the public switched telephone network. Under ISDN
a phone call can transfer 64 kilobits of digital data per second.
A mechanical structure connecting two robot parts that can flex, rotate,
or move.
A device consisting of a hand held stick that pivots about one end and
transmits its angle in two dimensions to a computer. Joysticks are often
used to control games, but are usual also in mobile robots.
Unit of measurement for pieces of information : actually 1024 Bytes or
characters but in practice almost always rounded down to 1000. Often
written as just K e.g. 250 K is 250 Kilobytes (250 0 bytes/characters –
well alright not exactly but close enough).
The objects, concepts and relationships that are assumed to exist in
some area of interest. A collection of knowledge, represented using
some knowledge representation language is known as a knowledge
base and a program for extending and/or querying a knowledge base is
a knowledge-based system.
A device that produce a very narrow and strong beam of light that can
Light Emitting
Diode (LED)
Linux
little endian
local area
network LAN
localisation
logic gate
LSI
M
machine
language (or
machine code)
be used for light shows, for cutting things, or for medical operations.
Semiconductor diode which radiates in the visible region.
A free, open source implementation of Unix operating system. It runs
on personal computers and other platforms. Very used by robotics
researchers.
A format for storage or transmission of binary data in which the least
significant bit (or byte) is placed first. Contrast with big endian.
A local area network is a short-distance network used to link a group of
computers together within a building. 10BaseT Ethernet is the most
commonly used form of LAN. A piece of hardware called a hub serves
as the common wiring point enabling data to be sent from one machine
to another over the network. LANs are typically limited to distances of
less than 500 meters and provide low-cost high-bandwidth networking
capabilities within a small geographical area.
Process by which a robot computes its own position in the environment.
An electronic circuit that will perform a Boolean operation upon its
inputs.
Large-scale integration; the organization of many integrated circuits on
a single, very small substrate; the basis of microcomputers and
minicomputer logic systems.
The representation of a computer program which is actually read and
interpreted by the computer. A program in machine code consists of a
sequence of machine instructions (possibly interspersed with data).
Instructions are binary strings which may be either all the same size
(e.g. one 32-bit word for many modern RISC microprocessors) or of
different sizes, in which case the size of the instruction is determined
from the first word or byte. The collection of all possible instructions for
a particular computer is known as its “instruction set”.
main memory
The storage device used by a computer to hold the currently executing
program and its working data.
manipulator
A generic term for any mechanical device which a robot uses to directly
systems
manipulate its environment.
mass
The quantity of matter in a body. Not to be confused with weight, that is
the force that gravity exerts on it.
Megabyte MB
Although mega is Greek for a million a megabyte actually contains 1 48
576 bytes (1 24 x 1 24 bytes). In other words a million bytes is actually
less than a megabyte. Remember that the next time you buy a hard
disk or try to fit files onto a floppy disk.
memory
In general another word for dynamic RAM the chips where the
computers store system software programs and data you are currently
using.
memory mapped The use of the same instructions and bus to communicate with both
I/O
main memory and input/output devices. This is in contrast to
processors that have a separate I/O bus and special instructions to
access it. The I/O devices are addressed at certain reserved address
ranges on the main memory bus. These addresses cannot therefore be
used for RAM.
microcontroller
A microcontroller is a device containing a very basic CPU, a small
amount of RAM and PROM memory and Input/Output circuitry for
microprocessor
mobile robot
modem
module
motherboard
motive systems
controlling robots or other automated devices.
See Central Processing Unit.
A self-propelled robotic vehicle that is capable of moving, usually on
wheels or tracks.
A device that converts digital data from a computer to an analog signal
that can be transmitted on a telephone line and converts the analog
signal received to data for the computer.
A section that can be separated and taken off for some special use
The main printed circuit board in an electronic device, particularly a
computer, which may contain sockets that accept additional boards
(“daughter-boards”). In a personal computer, the motherboard contains
the bus, the microprocessor, and integrated circuits used for controlling
any built-in peripherals such as the keyboard, text and graphics display,
serial ports and parallel ports, joystick, and mouse interfaces.
A generic term for the mechanisms used to convey a robot around its
environment.
N
nanotechnologies The scientific field devoted to extremely small human-made devices,
both mechanical and electronic. This relatively new branch of science
explores the possibilities of building things at the molecular level- atom
by atom.
network
Hardware and software data communication systems. The OSI seven
layer model attempts to provide a way of partitioning any computer
network into independent modules from the lowest (physical) layer to
the highest (application) layer. Many different specifications exist at
each of these layers. Networks are often also classified according to
their geographical extent: local area network (LAN), metropolitan area
network (MAN), wide area network (WAN) and also according to the
protocols used.
network adapter A physical device and its associated software that enables a processor
or controller to be connected to a network.
neural networks A network of many very simple processors (“units” or “neurons”), each
NNs
possibly having a (small amount of) local memory. The units are
connected by unidirectional communication channels (“connections”),
which carry numeric (as opposed to symbolic) data. The units operate
only on their local data and on the inputs they receive via the
connections. A neural network is a processing device, either an
algorithm, or actual hardware, whose design was inspired by the design
and functioning of animal brains and components thereof. Most neural
networks have some sort of “training” rule whereby the weights of
connections are adjusted on the basis of presented patterns. In other
words, neural networks “learn” from examples, just like children learn to
recognise dogs from examples of dogs, and exhibit some structural
capability for generalisation. Neurons are often elementary non-linear
signal processors (in the limit they are simple threshold discriminators).
Another feature of NNs which distinguishes them from other computing
devices is a high degree of interconnection which allows a high degree
of parallelism. Further, there is no idle memory containing data and
programs, but rather each neuron is pre-programmed and continuously
active. The term “neural net” should logically, but in common usage
never does, also include biological neural networks, whose elementary
structures are far more complicated than the mathematical models
used for NNs
neutral buoyancy The apparent loss in weight of a body when wholly or partly immersed
in a fluid that makes the body neither sink nor float.
nondeterministic (Or “probabilistic automaton”) An automaton in which there are several
automaton
possible actions (outputs and next states) at each state of the
computation such that the overall course of the computation is not
completely determined by the program, the starting state, and the initial
inputs.
nonlinear
A property of a system whose output is not proportional to its input. For
example, a transistor has a region of input voltages for which its output
voltage is found by multiplying the input voltage by the gain of the
transistor. Outside this region though, the transistor behaves nonlinearly, meaning that it does not obey this simple equation. The
behaviour of a system containing non-linear components is thus harder
to model and to predict.
NOT
IF presented with true, it will output false and vice versa. The output is
“NOT” the input.
null modem
A cable, especially an EIA-232 cable, for connecting serial ports on two
computers directly, rather than via modems. Since, according to the
specification, both computers should transmit on pin three of their EIA232 connectors and receive on pin two, a null modem cable needs to
connect one computer’s pin two to the other’s pin three and vice versa.
It also needs to have male connectors at both ends (again, according to
the specification).
numerical
Production machines driven by computer-generated instructions for
controlled
manufacturing that are read from a tape or other input medium, which
machine tools
the machine follows to complete a given task. They are operated by a
series of coded instructions comprised of numbers, letters of the
alphabet, and other symbols. These are translated into pulses of
electrical current or other output signals that activate motors and other
devices to run the machine.
O
object code
The machine code generated by a source code language processor
such as an assembler or compiler. A file of object code may be
immediately executable or it may require linking with other object code
files, e.g. libraries, to produce a complete executable program.
object-oriented
A method of software-development that groups related functions and
data into reusable chunks. Properly handled object-oriented
programming can reduce development time on new projects.
offline operation Peripheral equipment operating independently of a central computer, to
conserve expensive online central computer time.
offset
The number of measuring units from an arbitrary starting point in a
record area or control block to some other point.
ohm
The unit of electrical resistance. One Ohm is the resistance of a
conductor across which a potential difference of one Volt produces a
current of one Ampere.
open source
A method and philosophy for software licensing and distribution
designed to encourage use and improvement of software written by
volunteers by ensuring that anyone can copy the source code and
modify it freely.
open-loop
system
OR
P
packet
PAL
parallel port
parity bit
pixel
processor
program
PROM
prosthetic robots
protocol
Q
R
radar
RAM
reactive control
A system which generates output signals but which depends on the
integrity of the system to execute them, without feedback for monitoring
or comparison purposes. Open-loop systems ignore error signals and
operate on the assumption that no errors occur.
The output of this is true when Its first Input OR its second operation is
true.
The television broadcast standard throughout Europe (except in France
where SECAM is the standard). This standard broadcasts 625 lines of
resolution nearly 20 percent more than the U.S. standard NTSC of 525.
An interface from a computer system where data is transferred in or out
in parallel, that is, on more than one wire. A parallel port carries one bit
on each wire thus multiplying the transfer rate obtainable over a single
wire. There will usually be some control signals on the port as well to
say when data is ready to be sent or received. The commonest kind of
parallel port is a printer port.
A check bit appended to an array of binary digits to make the sum of all
the binary digits including the check bit always odd or always even.
The image displayed on monitors or in a graphic produced by a
scanner or paint program is made up lots of dots called pixels.
Collectively the number of pixels displayed is referred to as the image’s
resolution. A pixel on a monitor is a number of red green and blue
phosphor dots. These dots are “excited” to varying degrees by the
monitor’s three electron guns and the results mix additively to generate
a specific color. By manipulating large numbers of pixels in precise
ways patterns emerge to make up an identifiable picture. See also:
electron gun resolution texel
See central processing unit (CPU)
A sequence of instructions suitable for processing by a computer.
Processing may include the use of an assembler a compiler an
interpreter or a translator to prepare the program for execution as well
as to execute it.
Programmable read-only memory; can be programmed only by special
routines. One programmed with permanent data, it becomes a ROM or
read-only memory.
are programmable manipulators or devices for missing human limbs.
A set of communication rules between devices. It must define signal
specifications,
data format, temporisation and can also define error recovery
procedures.
A device that sends out radio waves and picks them up again after they
strike some object and bounce back.
(Random Access Memory; pr. “ram”) The computer’s main memory
which it uses to hold whatever you are currently working on. The
contents of RAM are lost when the computer is switched off. A
temporary storage location in which the central processing unit (CPU)
stores and executes its processes.
A reactive control architecture tightly couples perception and action to
real time
register
remotely
operated
RGB
robot
robotic arm
robotic rover
robotics
ROM
ROV
rover
S
sample rate
schedule
sensor
serial port
produce efficient, real-time responses to the environment with little or
no mediation of abstract representation.
The ability of a computer to function and control processes as they
actually occur . Describes an application which requires a program to
respond to stimuli within some small upper limit of response time
(typically milli- or microseconds).
One of a small number of high-speed memory locations in a computer’s
CPU.
Operated or controlled from another place.
Red, Green, Blue. The three colours of light which can be mixed to
produce any other colour. Coloured images are often stored as a
sequence of RGB triplets or as separate red, green and blue.
A computer-operated, mechanical body or vehicle that works on its own
to do a variety of jobs. Robots can be programmed, and reprogrammed
to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through various
motions. Robots are not presently “artificial people,” but helpful tools
used in specific environments. For the time being, most robots could be
considered computers with limbs, organs, tools, and other pieces of
equipment attached. However, experiments in artificial intelligence are
changing the definition of a robot in many ways for the future. The word
‘robot’ was coined by the Czech playwright Karel Capek, from the
Czech word for forced labor or serf.
An automatic mechanical arm designed for grabbing, holding and
pulling objects. A key function of the arm is to position the end-effector
in the right place to do its job.
An automatic mechanical device designed with wheels like a car to
perform certain jobs.
The study of problems associated with the design, application, control
and sensory systems of robots. It is a branch of engineering that
involves the conception, design, manufacture, and operation of robots.
This field overlaps with electronics, computer science, artificial
intelligence and bioengineering.
Read only memory. Memory in which stored data cannot be modified
by the user except under special conditions.
Remotely Operated Vehicle.
A vehicle for exploring the surface of unknown environment, even
another planet or satellite.
The number of times an analog signal is measured (sampled) in a unit
of time.
A list of the times at which certain things are supposed to happen.
An input device that sends information about its surroundings and lets it
know the state of the world around it. This information in the form of
electronic signals, or data. Sensors can provide only limited feedback
to robots, so most robots of today are nearly deaf and blind, compared
to the senses and abilities of even the simplest living things.
(Or “com port”) A connector on a computer to which you can attach a
serial line connected to peripherals which communicate using a serial
(bit-stream) protocol. The most common type of serial port is a 25-pin
D-type connector carrying EIA-232 signals. Smaller connectors (e.g. 9-
service robots
shuttle systems
simulation
social behaviour
software
solar arrays
sonar
source code
speech
recognition
spin-off
start-up
T
TCP/IP (transfer
control
protocol/internet
protocol)
teleoperator
transistor
U
undersea and
space robots
unmanned
V
pin D-type) carrying a subset of EIA-232 are often used on personal
computers.
Machines that extend human capabilities.
Are comprised of various types of conveying systems linked together
with various shuttle mechanisms for the prime purpose of conveying
materials or parts to prepositioned and predetermined locations
automatically.
Attempting to predict aspects of the behaviour of some system by
creating an approximate (mathematical) model of it. This can be done
by physical modelling, by writing a special-purpose computer program
or using a more general simulation package, probably still aimed at a
particular kind of simulation (e.g. structural engineering, fluid flow).
Typical examples are aircraft flight simulators or electronic circuit
simulators.
The emotional, physical, and mental interactions between agents. This
area includes a host of issues such as communication, interference,
competition, cooperation, as well as collective and imitative learning.
Programs that make a computer operate (see program)
Panels that collect energy from the Sun to provide electrical power
supply.
A device that sends out acoustic waves and picks them up again after
they strike some object and bounce back. In robotics is used for
obstacle detection.
The form in which a computer program is written by the programmer.
Source code is written in some formal programming language which
can be compiled automatically into object code or machine code.
Voice or speech recognition is the ability of a machine or program to
receive and interpret dictation, or to understand and carry out spoken
commands.
New things made from other technology areas
Routine application of drive power to the robot or robot system.
These two protocols were developed by the U.S. military to allow
computers to talk to each other over long distance networks. IP is
responsible for moving packets of data between nodes. TCP is
responsible for verifying delivery from client to server. TCP/IP forms the
basis of the Internet and is built into every common modern. operating
system
Are robotic devices comprised of sensors and actuators for mobility
and/or manipulation and are controlled remotely by a human operator.
An electronic switch or amplifier. It is a very basic silicon chip.
Include in addition to the manipulator or other tool or sensor system
that actually accomplishes a task, the vehicles or platforms that
transport the tools to the site. These vehicles are called remotely
operated vehicles (ROV’s) or autonomous undersea vehicles (AUV’s);
the feature that distinguishes them is, respectively, the presence or
absence of an electronics tether that connects the vehicle and surface
control station.
Vehicle without a person on board
variable
virtual reality
volt
W
WAN wide area
network
webcam
wireless
word
work space
world model
X
XOR
Y
Z
In programming languages a language object that may take different
values one at a time. The values of a variable are usually restricted to a
certain data type.
Computer simulations that use 3D graphics and devices such as data
glove to allow the user to interact with the simulation.
The measure unit of electric tension.
Take two local area networks hook them together and you’ve got a
WAN. Wide area networks can be made up of interconnected smaller
networks spread throughout a building a state or the entire globe.
Any video camera whose output is available for viewing via the Internet
or an intranet. Typically a webcam would be a slow-scan CCD video
camera connected to a video capture card in a computer. Images from
the camera are captured periodically and made available on a web
page.
A term describing a computer network where there is no physical
connection (either copper cable or fibre optics) between sender and
receiver, but instead they are connected by radio. A mobile robot is
often connected to remote host computers by a wireless connection.
A fundamental unit of storage in a computer. The size of a word in a
particular computer architecture is one of its chief distinguishing
characteristics. The size of a word is usually the same as the width of
the computer's data bus so it is possible to read or write a word in a
single operation. An instruction is usually one or more words long and a
word can be used to hold a whole number of characters.
All of the places a single robot can reach in its surroundings, within its
range of motion. The work envelope of each robot is suited to the job it
is programmed to accomplish, and can vary considerably from one
robot to another.
An information structure built up in the memory of a computer or robot,
based on both initialisation and heuristic interaction with the
environment.
This is the exclusive or. A more complex gate, the output is only when
either of its inputs are true, but not both. That is if one OR the other of
the inputs is exclusively true then the output is true.