Elizabethan England
Everyday Life
Bloody Painful: Crime and Punishment in Elizabethan England
Though many of today's crimes may be similar to those in Elizabethan England, the
methods of punishment have definitely changed a lot. Most of the punishments of the
Elizabethan period would be deemed cruel and unusual by today's standards. The death
penalty can no longer be enacted in cases of theft or highway robbery. The following
paragraphs will describe the various instruments of punishment (torture) of the period.
One out of the ordinary punishment of the Elizabethan Era was the drunkard's cloak. It
was a punishment for public drunkenness; the name of it is somewhat misleading. The flaw in
the name comes from the fact that the cloak is less a cloak and more a barrel. The drunk was
forced to don a barrel and wander through town while the villagers jeer at him. Holes were cut
in the barrel for the person's hands and head, causing it to become like a heavy, awkward
shirt.
Another weird punishment was the brank, also known as the bride's scold. The brank
was a punishment enacted on women who gossiped or spoke too freely. It was a large iron
framework placed on the head of the offender, forming a type of cage. There was a metal strip
on the brank that fit into the mouth and was either sharpened to a point or covered with spikes
so that any movement of the tongue was certain to cause severe injuries to the mouth. The
woman was then led by a city official through the streets of town by a chain, then usually tied
to a whipping post or pillory to stand in view of the cruel and verbally abusive public.
Yet another punishment for criminals was the pillory. The pillory
was a wooden post with a wooden block on top with holes in it for the
person's hands and head to be placed in. The heads and hands were then
locked into place while the person was forced to stand in public display
for the decided sentence. In some cases the pillory was combined with a
whipping post and stocks to make a one stop, public punishment device.
Also among the list of Elizabethan punishment methods was the stocks.
The stocks were similar to the pillory in that a part of the body was
locked between two slabs of wood, but in the case of the stocks the feet
were locked in the device instead of the hands and feet. The stocks were a proposed method of
punishment for drunkenness in a 1605 Act. The offender would be fined to five shillings or
six hours in the stocks. The Act was approved by King James I in 1623. The stocks were often
used as a method of holding a criminal until a more severe sentence could be decided and
carried out.
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One punishment about which there is not much to say is the whipping post. It was
basically what the name says, a wooden post that the person was strapped to and whipped for
the prescribed number of times. This correctional method was instituted during the reign of
Henry VIII and then continued through the time of Queen Elizabeth.
One more odd punishment worth mentioning was the ducking stool. Like the brank, it
was a punishment for women whose speech was considered too brash and brazen or too free.
The ducking stool was a wooden chair attached to a large lever system. The lever allowed the
chair to be raised or lowered without the tipping of the chair, making it parallel to the ground
at all times. The chair was then lowered into the water, dunking the loose tongued woman
under the water. Based on the level of the offense and the cruelty of the deciding party the
woman could be "ducked" any number of times, and in some cases of extreme measures, the
woman could drown from the time spent under water. Some of the ducking stools were
mobile and could be taken to the water's edge at the necessary time, while others were fixed
into place along the coast of the water as a grim reminder to the women of the town of what
free speaking could lead to.
One tool that was used as punishment was the amputation
saw. Much more cruel than the axe, the saw was slower and more
painful than the relative quickness of the axe blade.
Villagers of the period could be considered twisted
individuals because of the crowds of people that gathered for the public punishments and
executions. The people of the period relished the public hangings, and the persons to be
hanged were often falsely accused of treason, which called for them to be publicly
disemboweled and then cut into quartered sections to be left on display after the person's
death.
In conclusion, the punishments of days past were much more cruel than would be
allowed today. Private executions have replaced the public hangings and disembowelments.
People are no longer executed for minor crimes like theft, and axes are no longer used to
administer punishments. There are now holding cells for criminals awaiting trial instead of
stocks. People of authority have gotten much nicer.
Crime and Punishment
Punishments have evolved in many ways during the past four
centuries. During the Elizabethan time, crimes of treason and
offenses against the state were treated with the same severity that
murder and rape are today. During the sixteenth century, certain
nicknames were placed upon offenders. Priggers of prancers was a
code name for horse thieves, for example.
An outlaw was often taken to jail (or to his hanging, for that
matter) by being strapped to the saddle of a rider, which made him
have to run at full speed the entire trip (with occasional cantering to
catch his breath). In common English towns, people would pay the
turnkey two pence for a chance to jeer at whoever was on display.
Often, a victim would be in the audience to identify him. On the
other side of the spectrum, however, clergymen often were present to pray with the accused.
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The punishment depended on the crime committed, and the price was usually a painful
one. Offenses such as manslaughter, robbery, rape, piracy, and capital crimes entitled one to
hanging, usually in the town square. Shockingly enough, if one dared to commit a crime
against the state, he would be taken from prison on a sled or hurdle, hanged until half-dead,
then taken down and quartered alive.
Nobility found guilty of treason by their peers lost their heads over it, literally. A
woman found guilty of poisoning her husband was burned alive. A cook who poisoned his
customers was boiled to death in a cauldron of water or lead. Further more, a servant who
killed his master would surely be executed for petty treason.
The interesting thing about punishments in the Elizabethan days was that all crimes
were specifically punished. For example, a correcting scold or ducking stool, invented around
1597 , was generally used for women of bad repute as a cleansing process. It consisted of a
chair attached to a pole, like a teeter totter, and hung over a body of water. The criminal
would sit on the chair and be dunked into the water repeatedly.
The Brank, also known as the gossip's bridle, was a metal
mask placed on a woman's head. Attached to it was a sharpened
mouthpiece, sometimes covered with spikes, placed on the inside of
her mouth. If the woman attempted to speak she would receive a
painful repercussion on the tongue.
The pillory, usually placed in the middle of the market, was a
T shaped contraption with holes for the hands in the crossbar of the
T. The person being punished would have to stand in the device in
the middle of the market to be ridiculed by passersby. A baker guilty
of default of weight, a butcher guilty of exposing unwholesome
meat, and forgerers got the pillory.
Perhaps the worst thing about the punishments in the
Elizabethan days were the physical and social conditions. When a
person was being punished, it usually entailed an immense amount of embarrassment.
Criminals weren't dealt with in private, they were displayed in the middle of the marketplace
for all the townspeople to see. Instead of the juries, lawyers, and partisan judges of today,
those convicted of crimes were subject to "no holds barred" consequences. Criminals were
kept in jail for extended periods of time, and conditions inside were horrendous, with mice
and rats becoming the prisoner's roommates. Overall, conditions during modern times are very
humane when compared to those of the Elizabethan days
Torture and Punishment in Elizabethan Times
Torture is the use of physical or mental pain, often to obtain information, to punish a
person, or to control the members of a group to which the tortured person belongs. During the
Elizabethan times crimes were treated as we would treat a murder today. Stretching, burning,
beating the body, and suffocating a person with water were the most common ways to torture
a person in the Elizabethan times.
The purpose of torture was to break the will of the victim and to dehumanize him or
her. The intent was also to punish, obtain information, extract a confession from the victim or
a third party, or to intimidate the victim and others.
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Torture has been used for at least 2,000 years and has
been widespread. Early Greek and Roman laws specified that
only slaves could be tortured, but soon freemen could be
tortured in cases of treason. The right to torture slaves was
abolished in Roman law in AD 240. In the Middle Ages,
torture was included in proceedings of the Catholic Church,
which legally employed torture to obtain confessions.
It was during the times of the Tudors that the use of
torture reached its height in England. Under Henry VIII,
torture was frequently used. When Edward and Mary were on the throne, torture wasn't used
as much. However, when Elizabeth took the throne, torture was used more than in any other
period of history. Queen Elizabeth thought that treason was one of the worst crimes that could
be committed, and the majority of incidents of torture were for reasons of high treason. Lords
and high officials were exempted, and woman were rarely put through torture.
The punishment for poisoning during this period was to be boiled to death. Mutilation
and branding were also common. People often had their right hand cut off if they were caught
stealing, and on certain occasions eyes were plucked out with hot pinchers and fingers were
torn off.
Some minor cruelties included the pillory, the stocks, the finger pillory, the ducking
stool, and the ranks. The dunking stool was a stool or chair in which a woman who had been
accused of adultery or other crimes would be repeatedly dunked under water until pronounced
dead.
The pillory was another device that was commonly used. There were a couple of
different forms of the pillory. One is still known of today. The pillory was a frame in the
shape of a T, usually placed in the center of the town. The accused would place his/her hands
in the cross bar of the T with his/her head sticking out of a hole at the top. The accused then
had to stay in the pillory for an extremely long time and would be harassed by everyone that
crossed his/her path.
Another form of the pillory that isn't as widely known was for the feet. This device had
holes through which the toes were forced; then the toes were crushed with a hammer and
wedge. This form of pillory had much less emotional pain, but the excruciating physical pain
was much more enduring.
The harsher the crime committed, the more horrendous the punishment during this time. A
person accused of manslaughter, rape, or robbery, might find himself trapped in cages hung
up in public places where others could observe his slow death. Right before being pronounced
dead, he was taken down and quartered until the pain finally killed him.
Nowadays these torture devices seem cruel and heartless, but in the sixteenth century
cruel punishment was a normal everyday thing. Under the Tudors, torture flourished
throughout England. The result was a country living in fear of being the next victims.
Popular Amusements and Entertainment
Long before the invention of modern technologies, such as radios and televisions, CD's
and videos, video games and the internet, the Elizabethans created an elaborate system of
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activities and events to keep themselves entertained. Although there was work to be done,
leisure was an important part of the lives of the English people during the Elizabethan Age.
Most of this leisure came either after church on Sundays or on the holidays. Much has been
written about the Elizabethan people: "...they were expressive and eloquent, ostentanious and
pleasure-loving, not industrious or hardworking, but bold and self-confident, markedly
fearless of death, mercurial and inconsistent, loving change, above all, passionate" (Rowse
353).
During the Elizabethan Age there was great cultural
achievement, particularly in the area of music and drama.
In that time, musical literacy was expected in the upper
class of society. Many Elizabethans made their own music.
The laborers would sing while they worked, and the
townspeople would sing or play music after meals. The
lute, virginal, viola, recorder, bagpipe and the fiddle were
favored instruments of that time. A popular form of
entertainment in the countryside was the ringing of church
bells. Elizabethans also loved to hear music. Since there
was no access to a recording studio, the music had to be
performed. In the major towns, official musicians, better known as Waits, gave free public
concerts. The wealthy people hired musicians to play during dinner.
Dancing was also a popular activity. The dances were mostly performed by couples.
This was one of the best opportunities for interaction between
married people. Dancing varied according to social class.
Dancing at court and dancing in villages were two separate
things. The upper class favored courtly dances. Some of the
court dances included the Brawl, the Volte and the Pavane.
Morris dancing, which included the wearing of bells, was
performed as part of the summer festivals. Ordinary people
were more likely to do traditional "country" dances. These
dances included the jig, the dump, the hay and the trenchmore.
Some of the dances that were performed had foreign names,
usually French or Italian. The Pavane, Cassamezzo, Lavolta,
Coranto and the Galliard were just a few. Dancing in the Elizabethan Age was considered "a
wholesome recreation of the mind and also an exercise of the body" (Davis 240).
In the Elizabethan Age drama was at the high peak of its cultural achievement for all
time. There were a variety of plays including action, humor, violence, and plays with musical
interludes. This period witnessed the first entertainment industry, especially in theater.
Although the first performances were done in the courtyards of large inns, the very first public
theater in London was built in 1576. Theaters were mostly to be found in London, near the
court. However, plays were attended by all the people, with the audience reflecting society
from the lowest to the highest levels. A constant demand for entertainment led London
companies to take minor performances, like folk players, puppeteers, and acrobats, on the
road. The plague often interrupted the run plays and even closed down theaters, making road
performances necessary.
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Elizabethan theater was the work of a few men: proprietors, actors, playwrights and
workmen. The actors creating theater often received rewards, became respectable and would
slowly move up in social standing. Some of the brilliant actors were the Burbages (James,
Richard and Cuthbert), Philip Henstoe and Edward Alleyn. The brilliant playwrights included
Christopher Marlow, William Shakespeare, and Ben Johnson. The rise, maturity and decline
of Elizabethan Theater coincided with Shakespeare's dramatic career. By the year of
Shakespeare's death, there was a transition from plays to literature. Elizabethan drama owed
its strength and richness to the fusion of many elements. It was a mirror of the whole society.
Sports played a major role in the leisure time of the Elizabethan Age. Some of the
indoor games included dice, chess, checkers and a variety of card games. The card games
included primero, trump, gleek, new cut and many others. If the cards and dice were too
passive for the men, wrestling was an alternative for them. With wrestling, however, came
injuries like broken ribs, internal injuries, broken necks and more.
England is so far north that in the midsummer there was plenty of light late into the
evening. This gave the people more time to spend outside after their work was done. Some of
the outdoor games included golf, horse racing, shovel-board, sliding, swimming, fishing,
hunting, fencing, dueling and cricket. In that time it was not tolerable for a man to be
unskilled at tennis, bowling, archery and hunting. Tennis was a respectable sport which could
be played with either a racket or hand. Bowling and tennis games were not played far from
home. While the upper class enjoyed tennis, the common folk preferred football. If a field
could not be found, the village street was used. All levels of society enjoyed the sport of
hunting. Horses, dogs and hawks were kept and trained for hunting deer, rabbits and other
wildlife.
Another major part of the Elizabethan lifestyle had to do with feasts and festivals.
Every season of the year had special days that drew the people together to celebrate. In the
spring, Shrove Tuesday was one of the festivals observed in the Lenten season. Feasts and a
carnival were held and bell ringing, masking, gaming, and begging were among the activities.
One of the greater festivals of the year was held at Easter time. The Mayday celebration
consisted of the decorating of the maypole and dancing around it. In the summer, bonfires
were burned and dances were held to celebrate Midsummer's Eve on June 24. Also in June, St.
John the Baptist's Festival was an important civic occasion. In the fall, harvest festivals were
held. On All Hallow's Eve, Elizabethans celebrated by ducking for apples, dancing and bell
ringing. The winter holidays began with Christmas, ran through New Year's Eve and ended on
the Twelfth Night, January 5. These holidays included gifts, bonfires, wassail, yule logs,
music and jollity.
From the beginning to the end of each year, Elizabethans found ways to keep
themselves entertained. They were a creative group of people who pursued leisure activities
with great passion.
Elizabethan Sports
Elizabethan England embraced many different customs and cultures. The customs that
had the greatest effect on the rest of the world were the games of war that consumed spare
time. Games of war varied from hunting, with hawks or dogs , to equestrian activities,
including tournament jousts and tilts. Most of the sports of the Elizabethan era were carried
over from the Medieval period.
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Hunting was a favorite pastime for people, especially rich people.
Queen Elizabeth herself loved to hunt. The hunt allowed the rich nobles to
show off their fine horses, hawks, clothing, and weapons. Horses were
shown off by their breeding, most commonly by nobles, and ranked by
endurance, speed, beauty, and strength. From the hunting rounds the
wealthy would often establish a breeding tree of some sort in an attempt to
create the perfect breed.
Many clothing fashions were established during the hunting trips. Often a
noble would arrive garbed in a new outfit which the wealthy and under
class surrounding the hunt would emulate, thus spreading the style. New
weaponry also appeared at such events. One such case was the adapted
new arrow head that was eventually used to fell knights, due to its armorpiercing capabilities.
Hawking, otherwise known as falconry, was the sport of royalty. It was said that this was a
reference to the stateliness of the birds, but it was a royal sport mainly because commoners
could not afford to train the birds. They could not afford any other aspect of the sport, for that
matter. The eagle was a bird reserved solely for the King and Queen, but there were no other
restrictions placed upon the birds species. As was the case with the horses, there was a slight
attempt to breed hawks, but interaction primarily fell upon trading, rather than breeding.
Jousting was a popular sport that involved running at an opponent with a lance and
trying to knock him off his horse. Shields and armor were involved, of course. Jousting
tournaments were held for the rich; they were forbidden to common folk. Jousting, like any
other sport, was another excuse for the rich to show off their armor, clothes and animals.
Preparation for the joust involved the quintain, which properly knocked a person off their
horse if the person didn't hit the quintain just right.
Another tournament sport was archery. Outside of being a tournament sport, archery
involved a skill that was used in battle. Since the common people were the most numerous in
battle, the commoners participated in the sport as well. The shaft of the arrow was generally
made out of wood, since metal would be too heavy. The head of the arrow was made out of
iron. Archers have always held a very important place in military life. During Henry V's reign
in the middle ages, 6,000 English soldiers shot down 85,000 French soldiers at Agincourt, a
famous battle depicted in William Shakespeare's Henry V.
Sports and games of war took a place of importance in the society of Elizabethan England.
Tournaments, whether archery or jousting, were mainly events for the rich to show off their
possessions. Hunting was a favorite pastime of high society. The practical uses of Elizabethan
sports were teaching and practicing skills that could be used for battle or survival.
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Elizabethan Entertainments and Pastimes
The most popular of Elizabethan entertainments and pastimes included the arts, such as
literature, theater, and music, as well as sports.
The public theatre, sometimes called the most genuine form of entertainment during
this period, came to London around 1576. The first theatre was built outside the city limits to
avoid strict city regulations.
The earliest theatres resembled the innyards from which they had evolved. The theatres were
built around courtyards, with three-story galleries facing the stage. People from every social
class, from the workers to the aristocrats, attended the theatre. The aristocrats sat in the
galleries, while the commoners stood on the ground around the stage, with a few young men
often sitting on the stage. The most popular playwrights of the era were Christopher Marlowe
and William Shakespeare.
Another important form of public entertainment was literature. Elizabethan writers
produced all kinds of texts, such as technical works, political and religious tracts, ballads,
almanacs, and histories. People were able to buy a broadside or a pamphlet for a penny,
making the pleasure of reading affordable to almost everyone.
During this time period, reading was a more public activity than it is today. People
sometimes held readings where the latest works were
read aloud.
Elizabethans also loved to listen to music, which, of
course, was always performed live. For the most
part, people made their own music. Laborers and
craftsmen often sang while they worked, common
people sang after a meal, and the well-bred people of
society often played or sang a piece by rote during
recitals.
Dancing, another popular activity, provided a
great opportunity for interaction between unmarried people. The preferred type of dancing
varied according to social class, with those of higher social position favoring the courtly
dances imported from Italy and other European countries, and the ordinary people preferring
"country" dances. The European courtly dances were mostly performed by couples and
involved intricate and subtle footwork, while the English country dances were danced by
couples in round, square, or rectangular sets with much simpler form and footwork. Queen
Elizabeth herself encouraged country dances among the aristocracy.
In addition to social dances, there were performances and ritual dances . One favorite
was Morris dancing, characterizing by the wearing of bells.
Sports were regulated by the government. Those of rank were expected to take part because
sporting events trained men for war, whereas the laborers had to work six days a week and
could not participate. On Sundays, the working class often practiced archery.
Hunting was also very popular with noblemen and gentlemen. The animals that were
hunted the most were the stag or buck, and when the prey was felled, it was always eaten.
During mid-winter, when stag could not be hunted, the Royals and their nobles engaged
in hawking. Falcons were trained for this sport, and laws were passed to punish any poacher
who stole their eggs. Poaching by night was a much more serious offense than poaching by
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day. Henry VII, the first Tudor monarch, made unauthorized hunting in private forests a
felony punishable by death if the offense was committed at night.
The sports most popular among the commoners were football and hurling. Football was
much rougher in the Tudor times than it is today, with all sorts of injuries ranging from minor
to fatal. There were no limits to the number of players, and no lines. Football was called "a
friendly game of fight."
Hurling, which was played in two different versions, was as dangerous as football. The first
form was played with a box ball. There were fifteen to thirty players per side, and the object
of the game was to pick up the ball and run it through to the goal, passing the ball to
teammates mates if tackled. This game was a forerunner of modern rugby.
The second style was played with wooden sticks and a ball. The ball was hit through
the air into a goal, in a manner resembling modern-day hockey.
Hairstyles of the Elizabethan Period
Hairstyle was an important issue for the men and women of the Elizabethan time. Both
sexes took pride and joy in making their hair look as fabulous as the next person's. The people
of this time spent hours upon hours waiting in line to receive splendid hair-dos. Cost was not
an issue with the wealthy people of this time. They would do almost anything to get the look
that they wanted. They went through great extremes to change their hairstyles when fads came
and went.
During the Elizabethan period men took as much pride
in their hair as the women did. They would spend whole days
sitting in the barber shop listening to music and talking to one
another. The Elizabethan barber stiffened, starched, powdered,
perfumed, waxed, and dyed the hair a fashionable red. The hair
was worn shoulder length and curled with hot irons, which
were then called "love locks." When the men of this time went
bald, they depended upon wigs to help them keep up the latest
fashion. The wigs worn at his time were usually a fashionable
white or yellow color.
The men of this time were so facial hair-conscious that
they spent a lot of money on keeping their beards trimmed to
fit the fashion. Long beards needed little care except for
occasional brushing. The short beards called for a hairdresser.
The beards could be cut pointed, square, round, oblong, or Tshaped. In the daytime men brushed the beard to keep it in tip-top shape, and at night they
often encased the beard in a special wooden press. Beards were considered to be attractive.
The women of the Elizabethan Age went through great extremes to achieve the look
that was in. They dyed their hair blonde, which was the favorite hue. Women spent whole
days sitting in the sun because they believed that the sun added a golden glint. Women who
bleached their hair dried it from the terrace tops of their houses. When dying their hair,
women wore hats without the crowns and with a brim, over which the hair was spread. The
brim protected the wearer from the sun. The women also wore quantities of false hair, which
was usually made from peasants' hair or formed by white and yellow silk. All of these things
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women did to their hair were hotly condemned, and some women were denounced for
"ungodly exploitation" of themselves.
The women wore many accessories in their hair. The most
popular of all accessories was the hair net. Women wore thread
nets of silk, but the poor women who also wanted to keep up
fashion wore nets made of crepe. Sometimes the hair was worn
loose, filling in the pouch-like bag. The nets were then decorated
with gold trimmings and jewels. Hairpins and hair combs were
added to the net to give the hair a better look. Pointed hats were
sometimes worn over the hair nets to emphasize the look.
The people of this time were very hair-conscious. Their
hair was their most prized possession. With their high ranking,
wealth, and elaborate clothing, it was demanded that their hairstyles were elaborate as well.
Many people of the Elizabethan Age were very fashionable and splendid.
Men's Fashion during the Elizabethan Period
In the Elizabethan period, clothing was very different from the contemporary styles of
Eddie Bauer. It was not at all uncommon for men to wear tights, make-up oreven jewelry.
A trend called "slashing" started in Italy spread through the rest of Europe very quickly.
This trend was displayed by cutting fine slits in the outer wear and pulling an undergarment of
a contrasting color through. Doing so was an excellent opportunity to show how resourceful
an individual was. Fine linens were very difficult to obtain. This custom was believed to have
been started by mercenary soldiers who wore good clothes under their rags.
Ornamentation was a widespread trend of the time, as well. Even though the clothing could
not be washed, soap was beginning to be produced in London in 1524. It was expensive and
could not be used with fine cloths such as silk.
The bills of laundering must have reached their peak in 1550 when people began to
wear ruffs. A ruff is a natural development of the frill formed by the drawstrings that fastened
men's shirts at the neck. Some ruffs were so extravagant that they were a foot deep. The
French King Henry III wore a ruff so neatly folded with an ironing stick that it had eighteen
yards of linen. Ruffs were known to be so inconvenient that a royal lady used a spoon with a
handle two feet long to eat a bowl of soup.
In England, ruffs were usually about eight inches wide and were open in front. The
stiffness of ruffs increased when starching was introduced by the wife of queen Elizabeth's
Dutch coachman, Mrs. Dingham. Mrs. Dingham made starching a little more widespread by
teaching people how to do it for a small amount of currency. Men and women wore ruffs to
symbolize their higher social class.
There were problems in being so proper, and the first to realize this was Cardinal
Richelieu of France. He tried to put a halt to all the reckless extravagance of court functions.
The clothing just made people jealous. All the snazzy dressers would go to parties and would
not be able to move because the shirts were too stiff or the gems were too heavy.
Boots were very fanciful in the seventeenth century. Long boots, long enough to reach
the thigh, were made of fine leather and decorated with fringed tops, ruffles and jeweled
buckles. Some of these boots were turned up at the toe to such an extent that it was almost
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impossible to walk in them. The quality of the leather made the peasants mad because they
felt that this was a waste of materials on the rich.
For all the long dresses, ruffled collars, and long hair, men of this period were known
for their quick tempers and fierce sense of honor. As has been said,"Hearts were bold and men
were men." To the modern eye, the clothing may seem feminine; however, we usually fail to
mention the sword and rapier hanging from men's belts at this time.
Children of both sexes wore dresses. The counterpart to todays man's suit consisted of
"breeches," which were kind of like long underwear. Today something like this worn to be
exposed would be considered a little too revealing for most men.
Dress of this time was considered an art. People of the Elizabethan period realized this
and indulged themselves when their means permitted it. People of the time probably received
sweaters from their grandmothers for Christmas, as well. Clothing was not the chief concern,
of course, so maybe that's why men wore dresses.
Women's Fashions of the Elizabethan Period
In the Elizabethan day the goal of women's fashion was to
show the woman's status in society and make her as attractive as
possible. Women wanted as small and petite waist as possible, so they
did anything to make their waists small or appear smaller than the
actual size. Women in the Elizabethan days wore ruffles to show
status in society. Sleeves of women's gowns had a certain appearance
of being puffy.
It was not only in the colors, or the lack of them, that the new
fashions differed from those of the preceding generation. Bombast
was the stuffing used in doublets and hose in order to swell them out,
eliminating all folds and creases. It consisted of rags, flock, horsehair,
cotton, or even bran, although bran sometimes led to disaster, since all
the bran ran out if the clothes got torn. The bombasting of the doublet
over the chest and the stuffing out of breeches naturally made the
waist seem smaller, and the effect was increased by the use of tightlacing. The short, bombasted breeches, especially in the form of trunk
hose, exposed a considerable amount of leg, and the introduction of
knitting made it possible for leg coverings to fit the limbs more neatly
than they had done before.
There was a growth in the ruffle in the 1500's. A simple string was
drawn through the upper edge of the shirt to form a ruffle. The ruffle was
an example of the "hierarchical" element in dress. When women wore
them, they always had another element to be noted. This was the
"Seduction Principle," as it has been called, an attempt to exploit the
wearer's charms as a woman. For example, women wore a ruffle in order
to show their status in society. The Elizabethan compromise was to open
the ruffle in front to expose the bosom, and to allow the ruffle to rise in
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gauze wings at the back of the head. This fashion can be seen quite clearly in portraits of
Queen Elizabeth.
In Elizabethan times, women's fashion had a new style for sleeves in
gowns. The sleeves became a complicated collection of small pieces held
together with jeweled fasteners. The under-sleeve was made in vast
quantities of fabric, which projected a puffy style.
Women in the Elizabethan time had many different ways of showing
their fashion styles. Elements such as puffy sleeves, tight-fitting bodices of
dresses, and ruffles showed status in society. The women of Elizabethan
times used different types of clothing to make themselves appear more petite
than they actually were.
Fashions: Women and Men
The Elizabethan age brought about a great development of culture in sixteenth century
England. One way this great development of culture came about is through fashion and
costume. Fashion in the Elizabethan age was a way of expressing one's self: the fashion truly
helped to reveal the general culture of the period.
In the early stages of the Elizabethan era women generally wore clothes
that covered them completely. The bodice or the top part of the gown was
generally tight fitting with square shoulders. The yoke was usually of a
dark color, and there was often some type of high collar. The collar would
extend all the way to the chin and usually would ruffle at the top.
The sleeves were usually full from the shoulder to the elbow and then
more tight and form-fitting from the elbow to the wrist. At the wrist the
sleeves would open wide into a large ruffle.
The gown usually contained a v-shaped point at the waistline and
then expanded into a sort of funnel shape reaching the ground. The shoes
the women wore in this beginning period were not important because the
gown reached to the floor; the shoes most often were not seen. As for
jewelry, many woman in this period wore large pendants of gold around their necks. Earrings
were not very common except among the very sophisticated, who would wear pearls.
The headgear of the beginning of the Elizabethan period was an English version of the
French hood. This "hood" was placed near the back of the head and was worn with a stiff base
that was very close fitting. Many women in this period also opted for small-jeweled caps
decorated with jewels, pearls, or lace.
As the period went on, the women's style of dress saw a few
changes. The bodice of a dress was still tight-fitting, but instead of a vshaped waistline, the bodice was cut in a straight line around the hips.
The sleeves also changed. Instead of ruffling between the shoulder and
the elbow, they were tight-fitting all the way down to the wrist. The skirt
became heavily embroidered, yet still remained long enough to drag the
ground.
The men's style of clothing was also very distinct during the
beginning of this great period. The men wore embroidered vest-like
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shirts called jerkins, which had square shoulders and buttons down the front. The sleeves were
often decorated and loose- fitting all the way to the wrists. The pants were loose-fitting and
extended to about three to four inches above the knee. They were padded with horse-hair and
slashed in order to show the knitted silk stockings underneath.
The shoes of the men were generally made with the finest of leather. They contained a
small leather heel and were often decorated with slashes. The headgear was either a small flat
hat made of velvet or silk or a tall crown hat that was covered by fine fabric or feathers. Some
of the more distinguished men wore small capes with big-edged collars.
As the period continued, so did the development of men's fashion in this culture.
Stockings began to be replaced by garters, and silk stockings were replaced by horse hair
trunk hose. The most distinguished men began to wear crowned beaver hats and wide cloaks
held by a chain and a crucifix. The tailored stockings were plain. The pumps had rounded toes
and closed at the ankles. The bonnet was trimmed around the edged and decorated with a
plume on one side. The men also began to carry short perfumed gloves.
There really isn't much to be said about the fashion of children in this age. They usually wore
smaller versions of the adult fashions, and even the infant girls were required to wear long
gowns. The boys generally wore miniature versions of clothing worn by the men. Their
doublets and shirts had slashes in them, and they wore silk stockings of color underneath. The
girls generally wore long braids in their hair; the braids would either be tied with ribbon or
made into a crown.
Throughout the Elizabethan period there was a great development of culture in
England. The influences of this culture can be seen through the fashion and costume of the
sixteenth century English people.
Elizabethan Food and Drink
Food and drink were a major part of life in Elizabethan times. People had three main
meals per day. Breakfast was the first and most important meal of their day. The people of this
time ate a variety of different foods and had many creative ways of preparing them. The
people also had distinct table manners.
In eating breakfast, many people wanted a fine diet. Instead
of eating normal bread, many ate manchets. Manchet was a round
loaf which weighed about six pounds after it was cooked. It was
browner than normal bread. When bread was eaten in the morning,
butter was used to flavor it so that the bread was not so boring.
Children often ate butter in Lent. However, adults who kept the
fast strictly avoided butter during this time. Eggs were also eaten
at breakfast. They were eaten "sunny side up" or beaten to make
scrambled eggs. They were also mixed with bread crumbs to fry
things such as fish. Another popular food for breakfast was
pancakes, which were made from flour and egg batter. They were
a treat for Sunday mornings. Elizabethans usually put jams such as
grape, strawberry, and sometimes powdered sugar on them for a sweeter taste. Breakfast, the
hardiest of all their meals, gave a healthy start to their day.
In earlier times, water was the main beverage. However, as farmers became more
important, other drinks came along also. Milk was known for building healthy bones and
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giving a refreshing taste after a dessert. Farmers got milk from cows and she-goats. Other
sources of liquid were a part of stews and potages. Other beverages were created from a wine
base.
A famous hot wine recipe from this time is as follows:
1/2 put (275 ml) water
11/2 (850 ml) white wine
8 oz (225 g) ground almonds
1/2 tsp (2.5 ml) ground ginger
1 tsp (5 ml) clear honey or white sugar
A good pinch of salt
A good pinch of Powdered Saffron or a few drops of yellow food coloring.
Bring the water and wine to a boil in a sauce pan. Put in the almonds and add the ginger, honey, or sugar
and salt. Stir in the saffron or food coloring, and leave off the heat to stand for 15-30 minutes. Bring back
to a boil, and serve very hot, in small heat proof bowls.
Another popular wine base drink was a caudle, a hot drink thickened with eggs and
drunk at breakfast or at bedtime.
There were many differences between the meals of the higher and lower
classes. Dinner was the most important meal for any class and came
usually from 10:00 a.m. till noon. Ploughmen were well-scrubbed and
usually ate at bare tables. Country table manners were not the daintiest. In
a well-to-do household, however, a greater ceremony was observed.
There was a cloth placed upon the table. Next, a trencher, a napkin, and a
spoon were set at every place. Elizabethans loved fine linens.
An Elizabethan dinner usually consisted of several kinds of fish, half a
dozen different kinds of game, venison, various salads, vegetables, sweet
meats, and fruits. Rich men usually served food that suited them. Most
had noted French chefs to prepare their meals. Many had a very moderate
diet. Guests at a pleasant dinner table were offered oysters with brown
bread, salt, pepper, and vinegar.
A pepper box and a silver chafing dish were among the table accessories. The wine was
kept cool and fresh in a copper tub full of water. Each time a guest handed back an empty
glass or goblet it was rinsed in a wooden tub before being refilled.
Guests were able to choose between roast beef, powder (salted) beef, veal and a leg of mutton
with a "galandine sauce." There was often a turkey, boiled capon, a hen boiled with leeks,
partridge, pheasants, larks, quails, snipes, and woodcock, in addition to the other foods.
Salmon, sole, turbot, and whiting, with lobster, crayfish, and shrimps, were set before dinner
guests. Young rabbits, leverets, and marrow on toast tempted those who did not care for the
gross meats. Artichokes, turnips, green peas, cucumbers and olives were provided as
vegetables. Attractive salads, including one of violet buds, were also served as vegetables.
Finally, the host or hostess would usually offer guests quince pie, tart of almonds and various
fruit tarts. They would also be offered several kinds of cheese and desserts, including
strawberries and cream.
The midday meal in a good citizen's home consisted
of certain coarser foods like sausage, cabbage (usually badly
cooked) and porridge for the children. It was customary to
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spend two to three hours over this chief meal of the day. The nobility, gentleman, and
merchant men commonly sat at the board till 2:00 or 3:00 in the afternoon. Country fare was
given with fat capon or plenty of beef and mutton. They also recieved a cup of wine or a beer.
They were also given a napkin to wipe their lips. In the holiday season, rich and poor alike
indulged in leisure time and feasting.
People in the middle and lower classes ate lots of potages and stews. They also had fish
and vegetables at dinner. Behind the first cooked potages was the tradition of food processing.
This consisted of soaking roots, leaves, seeds, nuts, and berries in cold water. They were
soaked several hours in order to soften them, which made them easier to digest.
Next, the pot boiler method was used for cooking meat in water to make it more tender.
Potage was made primarily from cereals and large weed seeds, which were roughly ground
into bits and pieces.
Altogether there were many things to eat during this period. Overall the diet was much
healthier than what many people eat now. During the holiday seasons everyone, including
farmers and laborers, celebrated in holiday feasts.
The two main parts of a normal diet in the Elizabethan England time were bread and
meat. Bread was the most important component of their diets. The wealthy people ate
manchet, a loaf made of wheat flour. In the country districts, a lot of rye and barley bread
were eaten.
Another important component of an average diet was meat. England had been noted for
its meats and means of preparing them. The English had a way of making tainted meats
edible. First, a person would remove the bones from the meat. Then, they would wrap it in an
old, coarse cloth. After it was wrapped, they would bury it at least three feet underground. It
was left underground from twelve to twenty hours. When the meat was dug up, they found it
sweet enough to eat. They also used a lot of spices to add flavor to the unrefrigerated meat.
Soaking the meat in vinegar and adding sauces also flavored the meat.
One particular meat dish was Polonian Sawsedge, usually eaten from November to February,
when fresh meat was scarce. The dish was made from the fore part of a one or two year old
tame boar. It was a very heavily spiced dish. The recipe is as follows:
Platt's Recipe for Polonian Sawsedge
"Take the fillers of a hog; chop them very small with a handful of red sage: season it hot with ginger and
pepper, and then put it in a great sheep's gut; then let it lie three nights in brine; then boil it and hang it up
in a chimney where fire is usually kept; and these sawsedges will last a whole yeere. They are good for
sallades or to garnish boiled meats, or to make one rellish a cup of wine."
In Elizabethan times, the word "herb" stood for all things that were green. This
included things from grasses to trees. One popular vegetable of the time was turnips, which
were usually either boiled or roasted. The poor, however, ate them raw. Artichokes were eaten
raw with added salt and pepper. Aaparagus, which was known as "sperage" during this time,
was boiled and eaten with salt, oil, and vinegar. The sweet potato, a popular dish, was roasted
in ashes, sopped in wine, or topped with oil and vinegar. Sometimes, sweet potatoes were
even boiled with prunes for flavor. Regular potatoes were also either boiled and roasted.
The cooking techniques related to the kitchens of the landowners. There was invariably
some kind of fresh meat to replace the preserved foods on which lesser households depended
in winter and spring. Fresh or salted ingredients were used according to availability. Cooks
used a great deal more than a pinch of pepper, ginger, cinnamon and saffron due to the starchy
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ingredients and creamy sauces. Many techniques and materials solved contemporary food
preparation problems.
Texture was important because of the limited number of eating tools used. Most people
carried a general-purpose dagger-shaped knife and spoons. The dinner fork was an oddity
until the 18th century. People tried inventing different eating tools but failed. A few eccentrics
used a fork for dining, but most continued to eat with their fingers. Supposedly, it was Henry
VIII who introduced the fork into England. In some places, such as the Navy, knives and forks
were regarded as being prejudicial to discipline and manliness.
The absence of the table fork would have had few repercussions on table manners, had it not
been for the way in which the service of food was organized. Very high ranked men had their
own dishes, plates, and drinking cups. No napkins were used at this time. Men had to
remember to clean their hands before their meal and keep them clean during the meal. Other
table manners were not to blow one's nose with the fingers and not scratch at any anatomical
parts at the table. Poking at the meat or any dish was considered unpleasant and annoying to
others. When dinner guest were finished with the meal, the bones were thrown on the floor,
not on the plate. This was a custom in elevated households. Finally, to finish the meal right, a
delicate burp was acceptable. Whether one was a member of the high or low class, manners
were the same for everyday life.
In conclusion, food and dining were a part of everyday life in Elizabethan time. They had
many different dishes and styles of cooking. They also had distinct manners and traditions that
went along with their meals.
Medical Beliefs and Practices
D. Pedro: Sigh for the tooth-ache?
Leon: Where is but a humour of a worm?Through all thy veins shall run
A cold and drowsy humour.
This is undation of mistemper'd humour
Rests by you only to be qualified;
Then pause not; for the present time's so sick,
That present medicine must be minister'd.
These lines from Shakespeare's Much Ado About Nothing give a brief glimpse into the
world of Elizabethan medicine. The beliefs, practices, and medical problems of the sixteenth
century were very different from those of today.
One of the most common beliefs during this time concerned
the humours. It was believed that four humours or fluids entered into
the composition of a man: blood, phlegm, choler ( or yellow bile), and
melancholy ( or black bile). According to this belief, the
predominance of one humour over the others determined a person's
temperament as sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, or melancholy.
Furthermore, they believed that too much of any of them caused
disease, and that the cure lay in purging or avoiding the peccant
humour, as by reducing the amount of blood by cupping or reducing
the bile by means of drugs.
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Epidemic diseases became more common in the sixteenth century. Among them were
typhus, smallpox, diphtheria and measles. Scurvy also increased in frequency. During this
time leprosy became rare.
In children there were epidemics of plague, measles, smallpox, scarlet fever, chicken
pox, and diphtheria. Many children were abandoned, especially infants with syphilis (it was
feared they would pass it on ). Dental disease sometimes caused death, and congenital and
acquired blindness were also common for the children.
In the sixteenth century syphilis continued to be common. The favored treatment was
with mercury or guaiac. Gonorrhea became even more common. These two venereal diseases
were directly responsible for the stopping of communal baths, which were the only convenient
means of personal hygiene.
Elizabethan medical treatments were quite varied. The first effective remedy for ague
(malaria) was a plant derivative from Peru called cinchona. It cured quickly and acted
specifically on only a certain kind of fever. The belief in fever as a general manifestation of
unbalanced humours received a severe blow. It was then felt that each fever could be different
diseases.
For an earache, a common remedy was to put a roasted onion in the ear. To cure a stye,
a person was supposed to rub his eye with the tail of a black tomcat. Captain Cook kept his
sailors healthy from scurvy by giving them lemon juice, a source of much-needed vitamin C.
For mental illness, Jean-Baptiste Denis extended the new technique of transfusing
blood to the treatment of mental patients. When arterial blood of lambs was injected into the
venous system, the patients seemed to recover. This method was stopped when a patient died.
Large scale preventative measures for epidemic diseases did not come about until over
a hundred years later. In 1764, Dr. Clarke inoculated against smallpox with the virus of the
disease itself. The doctors discovered that if people had one slight attack of small pox, later
they were immune to the disease. In 1776, people who contracted cowpox seemed to be
protected from smallpox.
The physicians of the Elizabethan period were men of good education. Their degrees
were generally taken abroad and were then incorporated at Oxford or Cambridge. A very
thorough examination had to be passed before licenses were granted for practicing in the
metropolitan area. The college was less severe about licenses to practice in the country.
Ambroise Pare, an army physician, discovered the effectiveness of
hygiene on wound healing. One night after treating many gunshot
wounds with boiling oil, he ran out of oil. Many soldiers' wounds were
uncared for, so Pare simply cleaned and dressed their wounds and went
to bed. The next day he awoke to see that the wounded treated with oil
were feverish and in pain, while the ones cleaned and dressed were
sleeping and doing well. As Pare's fame grew, his story was made
common knowledge, and boiling oil was no longer used on the
battlefield. Pare also reintroduced the ancient method of stopping
hemorrhage by using ligatures. He influenced many practitioners to
abandon the cauterizing irons.
In 1616, physician William Harvey studied of the circulation of
the blood and disproved the existing notion that the heart was merely a fountain of supply. For
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the first time he demonstrated the real action of the heart and the course that the blood took
through the arteries. Other physicians had suggested this explanation, but Harvey was the first
to demonstrate it.
Jan Baptista Van Helmont believed that fever was not due to an excess or unbalanced
humours but represented a reaction to an invading irritating agent. He declined to use
bloodletting and purging and rejected their supposed value in restoring the humoral balance.
He used chemical medicines and improved on the use of mercury.
In conclusion, Elizabethan medicine was very different from our present day practices and
beliefs. Furthermore, the medical problems of the sixteenth century were very different from
those of our own time.
Plague
Plagues devastated Elizabethan England. They were a
constant threat to the people and the land. The most devastating
to England was the bubonic plague. London was afflicted over a
dozen times during the 1500's.
The bubonic plague originated in Central Asia, where it
killed 25 million people before it made its way into
Constantinople in 1347. From there it spread to Mediterranean
ports such as Naples and Venice. Trade ships from these
Mediterranean ports spread plague to the inhabitants of southern
France and Italy. It had spread to Paris by June of 1348, and
London was in the grips of plague several months later. By 1350,
all of Europe had been hit by plague. From this time to the mid
1600's, the disease was seen in England.
This particular type of plague was the bubonic plague, which is
caused by the bacteria called Yersinia pests. This bacteria lived
in rats and other rodents. Human beings were infected through bites from the fleas that lived
on these rats. The symptoms associated with plague are bubos, which are painful swellings of
the lymph nodes. These typically appear in the armpits, legs, neck, or groin. If left untreated,
plague victims die within two to four days. Victims of this disease suffered swelling in the
armpit and groin, as well as bleeding in the lungs. Victims also suffered a very high fever,
delirium and prostration.
During the sixteenth century, plague teased
England's countryside with isolated outbreaks.
The major outbreaks were in London, due to its
large population. Historian Rappel Holinshed
wrote: "many men died in many places, but
especially in London." At the beginning of the
century, London had a few mild winters, allowing
the infected rats and fleas (which usually
hibernated) to remain active. Contemporary
observers estimate that this epidemic took almost
30,000 lives, almost half of London's population
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at the time. However, church records show this estimate to be exaggerated, putting the actual
number closer to 20,000.
In 1563, London experienced another outbreak of plague, considered one of the worst
incidences of plague ever seen in the city. The bubonic plague took almost 80,000 lives,
between one quarter and one third of London's population at that time. Statistics show that
1000 people died weekly in mid August , 1600 per week in September, and 1800 per week in
October.
Fleeing form the cities and towns was common, especially by wealthy families who
had country homes. Queen Elizabeth I was no exception. She took great precaution to protect
herself and the court from plague. When plague broke out in London in 1563, Elizabeth
moved her court to Windsor Castle. She erected gallows and ordered that anyone coming from
London was to be hanged. She also prohibited the import of goods as a measure to prevent the
spread of plague to her court.
Later, in 1578, when plague broke out once again, Elizabeth took action. This time she
ordered physicians to produce cures and preventative medicine. Also, most public assemblies
were outlawed. All taverns, plays, and ale-houses were ordered closed.
Plague devastated England and its people during the Elizabethan period. Despite all of the
hardships involved with plague, there were many advances made. Writers wrote of
preventative measures, causes and recommended cures, which led to the basic medical
practices and sanitation practices of the time.
Great Plagues of the Elizabethan Period
Widespread diseases have been serious medical problems for a long time. From the
very earliest plagues, there were simple bans on preventing movements of goods and people
from one area to another. By the sixteenth century, however, there were systems of quarantine
in many parts of Europe.
As many writers have stated, the first case of a water-borne
disease was probably caused by an infected cave man polluting the water
upstream of his neighbors. Entire clans were probably destroyed, or
maybe the panicky survivors packed up their gourds and fled from the
"evil spirits" inhabiting their camp to some other place.
As long as people lived in small groups, isolated from each other, there
were not many incidents of widespread disease. But as civilization
progressed, people began clustering into cities. They shared communal
water, handled unwashed food, stepped in excrement from casual
discharge of manure, and used urine for dyes, bleaches, and even
treatment of wounds.
Several Christians of the 14th and 15th centuries earned status as
saints by setting an example of helpful charity toward plague victims. They also were thought
to preserve the healthy from the ravages of the plagues. The popularity of St. Roch of
Montpelier grew steadily during the 15th century, especially in Italy and Germany.
Writers of this time described plague in great detail in their diaries and chronicles. One of the
most common observations was the Italian writer Boccaccio's description of people being
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abandoned in the epidemic. His description was picked up by other writers. Images of
abandonment because of plague can be traced from Italy to writers in France and Germany.
As cities grew and became crowded, they also became the nesting places of waterborne, insect-borne, and skin-to-skin infectious diseases. Typhus was most common, reported
in the 17th century by Thomas Sydenham, England's first great physician. Next came
relapsing fever, plague and other pestilential fever, smallpox and dysentery (a generic class of
disease that includes what is commonly known as dysentery), as well as cholera.
Nonexistent or poor plumbing was merely one of many sanitation factors that gave rise to the
Black Death of the Middle Ages. Other scourges are also directly related to human waste.
Dysentery is one that has left an indelible mark on history. Characterized by painful diarrhea,
dysentery is often called an army's "Fifth column." Dysentery was dentified as the time of the
Hippocrates and before. It comes in various forms of infectious disorders and is said to have
contributed to the defeat of the Crusaders.
Typhus fever is another disease born of bad sanitation. It has come under many
headings, including "jail fever" or "ship fever," because it is so common among men in pentup, putrid surroundings. Transmitted by lice that dwell in human feces, it is a highly
contagious disease. Typhoid fever, a slightly different disease, involves a salmonella bacillus
that is found in the feces and urine of infected people.
Another water-borne disease, cholera, has been one of history's most violent killers.
However, through cholera epidemics, the link between sanitation and public health was
discovered, which provided the impetus for modern water and sewage systems.
Cholera is caused by swallowing water, food or any other material contaminated by the feces
of a cholera victim. Casual contact with an infected bathroom, clothing, or bedding might be
all that is required. The disease is amazingly rapid-acting. Extreme diarrhea, sharp muscular
cramps, vomiting and fever, and then death, can occur within 12-48 hours of infection.
In the 19th century cholera became the world's first truly global disease in a series of
epidemics. Eventually these epidemics led to a better understanding of the causes of the
disease, followed by improvements in sanitation and plumbing.
Man has a long history of battling epidemic or plague-like diseases. The treatments
have advanced from hoping that a disease will cure itself (most of the time it never did) to
administering modern preventive measures, medications and treatments.
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