Running head: EFFECTS OF GENDER AND CULTURE ON LEADERSHIP
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The Effects of Gender and Cultural Background on the Perception of Leadership
David Michael Jones
Virginia Commonwealth University
(Michael – very good paper – it was easy to follow the theme of the paper – the
inferences and examples provided supported your position – you provided some very
good references; however, you could have used more references from Drath and Bolman
and Deal. Drath’s interpersonal influence principle would have added a good connection
to the paper. You provided good knowledge of the topic and did a very good job of
incorporating this into your paper – (28.5/30)
EFFECTS OF GENDER AND CULTURE ON LEADERSHIP
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The Effects of Gender and Cultural Background on the Perception of Leadership
A leader’s gender and cultural background both affect perceptions of his or her
leadership. In an ideal world a leader would only be judged by his or her effectiveness.
Operationally a leader’s critics would examine how often followers disobey the leader’s
commands contrasted with how often the leader’s directives are followed; this simple
operational definition would be used to judge the success or failure of the leader. By
using an operational definition of leadership success and failure, bias in results could be
avoided. However, currently, both gender and cultural background affect the public’s
perception of a leader and its determination of whether or not a leader is ultimately a
success or a failure.
Before determining the ultimate success or failure of leadership pursuits,
evaluators must define leadership. Some evaluators of leadership may define leadership
as simply holding a title which engenders the capacity to lead; however, many people
who hold traditional positions of leadership are not actually leading followers.
Ineffective leaders may hold positions of power for varied amounts of time, but these
leaders do not promote a cohesive movement of followers towards a shared goal. Rather
than just defining leadership as holding a position of power Drath (2001) asserts,
“particular thoughts and actions become ‘leadership’ and accomplish leadership tasks
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because of some underlying and organizing knowledge principle”. Drath explains that
many people cannot articulate a definition of leadership, but they are able to recognize it
in practice (p. 27).
The gender and the cultural background of both the leader and the followers affect
how leadership is perceived and whether it is viewed as effective or ineffective. Both
conscious and subconscious biases affect followers’ judgment of a leader’s success.
Leaders from a certain cultural background or of a certain gender are more likely to be
viewed as successful by some demographic groups than others. Similarly followers of a
certain gender or of a certain cultural background will view and evaluate leadership
differently than followers from a different gender or cultural background. Further Drath
explains “[i]f the leader is effective…the community or organization moves in
accordance with the leader’s vision, aligns with the leader’s plans, responds to the
leader’s call adapts as the leader adapts” (p. 35). Thus effective leadership may not be
easily defined, but its effects are obvious. The gender and cultural background of both
the leader and the followers affect the manner in which the quality of the leader’s effects
on followers are perceived and thereby judged.
The Effects of the Leader’s Gender or Cultural Background
A leader’s gender and cultural background affect the manner in which his or her
followers perceive his actions and judge them as effective or ineffective leadership.
Naturally people are attracted to counterparts who possess characteristics similar to
themselves. Consequently followers are more likely to judge a leader’s decisions as
favorable if they see evidence of traits and characteristics of themselves in the leader.
Richard and Kruse (2008) found that “gender plays a role in [school] board members’
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expectations and perceptions of superintendents” particularly in the board members’
judgment of the superintendents’ ability to attend to needs of people encompassed by the
school district (pp. 11-13). Most supervisors (school board members) are unable to
separate gender expectation from job evaluation. Supervisors expect female employees
to display qualities which are typically feminine. Similarly supervisors expect male
employees to display masculine characteristics. Female school superintendents should be
warm, welcoming, and accommodating facilitators of growth in their schools, while male
superintendents should be excellent decision makers who think with their heads and not
their hearts. Eagly and Carli (2007) suggest that leaders’ evaluations, when typically
reviewed in conjunction with gender, vary somewhat based on the expected role of the
leader. Leaders in some situations are expected by followers to embody traits which are
typically considered feminine before leaders in other occupations are allowed to display
regularly the same traits. The authors contrast “elementary school principals” and
“CEO’s” and state that “people ascribe some qualities, such as intelligence, to most types
of leaders, they view other qualities such as competitiveness or discipline, as more typical
of particular types of leaders” (p. 94).
Traditionally in Western culture men are leaders in the workplace and women are
followers; however, this tradition has begun to change in recent years. Still as women
ascend into leadership roles, they must contend with those people who still think of them
in the traditional workplace roles of secretaries and assistants. Women who assume
leadership capacities must also battle gender stereotypes which make leadership roles and
the traits required to execute them efficiently as masculine. Eagly and Carli (2007)
discuss the way in which society views men as possessing the typical traits associated
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with leadership which “can make people conclude that no woman could have the ‘right
stuff’ for powerful jobs” (p. 83). Because of society’s view of women as nurturers they
are not seen as natural candidates for leadership positions. In turn women who do
assume positions of leadership face questions regarding their femininity; however,
femininity and effective leadership should not be viewed as mutual exclusives.
In addition to gender, race effects followers and critics perceptions of a leader’s
effectiveness. Reed and Evans (2008) review literature which “suggests that same-race
affiliation between African-American leaders, teachers, and students creates a positive
academic and social environment” (p. 496). In fact the researchers reviewed literature
which found “that being an African-American principal in an African American school
provides a service to the African-American community, even if the actions and decisions
toward or in response to African-American constituents do not reflect notions of AfricanAmerican spirituality, connection and identity” (p. 496). The research suggests that if a
leader is of the same cultural background as his or her followers, then his or her
leadership will be evaluated more positively than if he or she was not; in fact this
leadership will be judged in a positive manner even if the decisions of the leader directly
conflict with the cultural norms of the community. This tendency is true in America;
however, in other countries deep rooted cultural beliefs regarding gender sometimes
overshadow race.. Shapiria, Arar, and Azaiza (2011) studied a group of female school
principals in Israel. The researchers found that “a change in societal norms and
willingness to accept women’s leadership would enable more women to fill public roles
and contribute to their society’s progress” (p. 25). Still cultural norms prevented the
women from making more progress. Similar to the pattern observed with same gender
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leaders and followers, followers are drawn to leaders in whom they view similar
characteristics. If a potential follower observes traits of himself or herself in the leader,
then the follower is more likely to fully follow the leader’s direction, thereby making the
leader effective.
The Effects of the Followers’ Gender or Cultural Background
In addition to the leader’s gender or cultural background affecting ratings of his or
her effectiveness by followers, the followers’ gender or cultural background can affect
ratings in a similar manner. Followers are more likely to subscribe to the theories and
follow the directives of a leader who mirrors them in some way. In a recent study
Yarrish, Zula, and Davis (2010) found a difference between the gender of followers and
the way in which they perceive leadership. Specifically “female participants…rated
interpersonal/intrapersonal skills as more important than the male participants” (pp. 7273). Females are more likely to follow a leader who embodies the traits typically valued
by females, and the converse is true for males.
In a similar study Cundiff and Komarraju (2008) also provide evidence that the
follower’s background affects his or her perception of leadership. Specifically the
researchers found that people “who express more empathy toward individuals from
diverse ethnic or cultural backgrounds are likely to have positive perceptions of women
in authority/leadership positions”. The study also showed that women more often than
men possess empathy, and the researchers concluded that women are more accepting of
female leaders then are men (pp. 5-10). Thus follower’s gender definitely affects his or
her perception of leadership in the tasks accomplished by a leader. Gaffney and Blaylock
(2010) studied voters’ (followers in the political arena) beliefs about Hillary Clinton
EFFECTS OF GENDER AND CULTURE ON LEADERSHIP
during the 2008 Democratic primary election; they found participants rated “Clinton as
higher in competence than warmth” (p. 11). Clinton lost the 2008 primary election.
Perhaps voters were not ready to elect a female President (the ultimate leadership
position) who was not viewed as warm (a traditionally feminine trait).
Conclusion
The gender and cultural background of both the leader and the followers impacts
the way in which the leadership tasks accomplished by the leader are perceived and
evaluated. Research highlights the simple fact that often followers usually are more
accepting of a leader who embodies qualities of the followers. Some demands of the
leadership role change based on the context in which the leadership occurs. Leaders in
some roles (elementary education) are expected to embody more feminine traits than
leaders in other roles. Followers’ expectations for gender roles can affect the way
leadership performance is evaluated based upon the gender of the leader. The research
holds particularly important implications for current minority and female leaders; these
leaders may face a somewhat difficult road to acceptance, particularly from followers
from whom they differ.
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References
Cundiff, N. L., & Komarraju, M. (2008). Gender differences in ethnocultural empathy
and attitudes toward men and women in authority. Journal of Leadership &
Organizational Studies, 15 (1), 5-15. doi:10.1177/1548051808318000
Drath, W. (2001). The deep blue sea: Rethinking the source of leadership. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Through the labyrinth: The truth about how women
become leaders. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Gaffney, A. M., & Blaylock, D. L. (2010). Hillary Clinton’s race: Did she match the
presidential prototype? Advancing Women in Leadership Journal, 30 (6), 1-15.
Reed, L., & Evans, A. E. (2008). ‘What you see is [not always] what you get’
Dispelling race and gender leadership assumptions. International Journal of
Qualitative Studies in Education, 21(5), 487-499.
doi:10.1080/09518390802297797
Richard, J. V., & Kruse, S. D. (2008). Understanding school board members’
perceptions of superintendents’ leader behaviors. Mid-Western Educational
Researcher, 21(4), 9-15.
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Shapira, T., Arar, K., & Azaiz, F. (2011). ‘They didn’t consider and no-one even took
me into account’: Female school principals in the Arab educational system in
Israel. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 39(1), 25-43.
doi:10.1177/1741143210383901
Yarrish, K. K., Zula, K., & Davis, E. (2010). An exploration of differences of leadership
perceptions related to a student’s gender within the College of Business at a
small liberal arts institution. American Journal of Business Education, 3(11),
69-75.