ESL & EFL (Book 2 p. 193-4) & EIL
ESL—an abbreviation for English as a second language e.g. learning English of an
Arabic speaker in the USA
EFL— an abbreviation for English as a foreign language in a context where English
in one’s own culture with few immediate opportunities to use the lg within the
environment of that culture. E.g. a Japanese learning English in Japan
The ESL/EFL terminology seems to have created a world view that being a native
speaker of English will somehow bestow on people not only unquestionable
competence in the use and teaching of the lg but also expertise in telling others how
English ought to be taught. However, native speakers do not necessarily exemplify the
idealized competence. The multiplicity of contexts for the use of English worldwide
demands a careful look at the variables of each situation before making any
generalization that the two models apply. Although on the surface L2 learning in a
culture involves the deepest form of culture acquisition, we should not too quickly
dismiss L2 learning in the native culture from having a potential acculturation factor.
* ph.D: pizza-hut delivery
EAP & ESP & EGP
EAP--- English for Academic Purposes are courses and programs of study for helping
learners develop the skills needed for speaking and writing for academic English, for
example, writing essays and reports, taking part in tutorial discussions, giving
academic presentations
ESP—English for Specific Purposes are courses designed around the specific needs
of particular groups of learners, for example, “ English for computer engineers. “
EGP--- English for general purposes, contrasting with ESP
EOP--- English for Occupational Purposes
Deductive v.s. inductive learning of grammar
Deductive learning— an approach to language teaching in which learners are taught
rules and given specific information about a language. They then apply these rules
when they use the language. (such as grammar translation method)(time-saving; used
in EFL more often)
Inductive learning— an approach to language learning in which learners are not
taught grammatical or other types of rules directly but are left to discover or induce
rules from their experience of using the language. Language teaching methods
which emphasize use of the language rather than presentation of information about the
language such as the direct method, communicative approach and counseling learning.
(time-consuming; used in ESL more often) (Refer to Book 2 p.193; Book 3 p.118)
Approach, method, procedures, and technique (Book 2 p 169-172)
Approach— refer to different theories about the nature of language and how
languages are learned such as cognitive (the most general of three, the broadest); an
approach describes how lg is used and how its constituent parts interlock and also
how people acquire their knowledge of the lg and makes statements about the
conditions which will promote successful lg learning.
* cognitive code approach—language learning is a process which involves active
mental processes and not simply the forming of habits. The communicative approach
makes some use of these principles.
Method— a set of procedures, a system that spells out rather precisely how to teach a
language such as the silent way; a practical realization of an approach where decisions
about types of activities, roles of teachers and learners, the kinds of material which
will be helpful and some model of syllabus organizations, including procedures and
techniques.
Technique— a classroom device or activity such as silent viewing when using video
materials to facilitate language practice
approach 教學觀: Theoretical positions and beliefs about the nature of language,
the nature of language learning, and the applicability of both to pedagogical
settings.
method 教學方法: A generalized, prescribed set of classroom specifications for
accomplishing linguistic objectives. Methods tend to be primarily concerned with
teacher and student roles and behaviors, and secondarily with such features as
linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials. They are
almost always thought of as being broadly applicable to a variety of audiences n
a variety of contexts.
technique 教學技巧: any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or devices used
in the lg classroom for realizing lesson objectives.
Error & mistake in error analysis
Error—a piece of speech or writing that is recognizably different in some way from
native speaker usage. They can occur at the level of discourse, grammar, vocabulary
or pronunciation. (* local & global errors) Errors have been studied to discover the
processes learners make use of in learning and using a lg and explain the development
of learner lg (interlanguage).
Mistake—deviations is usage that reflects learners’ inability to use what they actually
know of the target language caused by lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness or some
other aspect of performance.
fluency & accuracy /function & form/ language use & language analysis
Fluency—the ability an individual to speak or write without undue hesitation
Accuracy—the ability an individual to speak or write grammatically
receptive & productive language (a current view: interactive listening/reading)
receptive (not passive) language: listening and reading
productive language: speaking and writing
Performance-- a person’s actual use of language; how a person uses his knowledge
of a language in producing and understanding sentences.
Competence-- a person’s knowledge of a language (usually refers to the ideal
speaker/hearer, not a real person who would have a complete knowledge of the whole
lg); a person’s ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they
have never heard before and the knowledge of what are and what are not sentences of
a particular lg; the focus of language learning (based on an ideal listener/speaker)
People may have the competence to produce a long sentence but when they actually
try to use this knowledge, there are reasons why they restrict it. For example, they
may run out of breath or their listeners forget what has been said if the sentence is too
long. Due to performance factors such as fatigue, lack of attention, nervousness or
excitement, their actual use of language may not reflect their competence.
errors they make are described as examples of performance.
The
Acquisition vs. learning by Krashen, a dichotomy
Acquisition 習得--the implicit and subconscious processes by which people naturally
develop proficiency in a language; similar to children picking up L1
Learning 學習-- the explicit and conscious processes by which people formally
develop language proficiency.
Bottom-up processing vs. top-down processing from Schema Theory, coined by
Barlett, 1932 解釋學習者瞭解訊息的處理過程，兩種過程在解讀訊息時會同時進
行，達到最能解釋意義的目的。
Top-down processing—a way in which humans analyze and process language as part
of the process of comprehension and learning by making use of previous knowledge
(higher-level knowledge) in analyzing and processing information which is received
such as one’s expectations, experience, schemata （基模） in reading the text. 藉由
以前的經驗及知識，幫助自己解讀進來的資訊
Bottom-up processing— a way making use principally of information which is
already present in the data (words, sentences, etc.) such as understanding a text
mainly by analyzing the words and sentences in the text itself.
藉由訊息本身的線索判斷意義，如標題
Minimal pairs: two words in a language which differ from each other by only one
distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning, such as bear and pear; it is also
sometimes used for any two pieces of lg that are identical except for a specific feature
e.g. The boy is here/the boys are here.
Minimal pair drill where minimal pairs are practiced together to help learners
distinguish a sound contrast.
The Phonics Approach 自然發音法 vs. the Whole Language Approach 全語言教學
法
Phonics— a method of teaching children to read. Children are taught to recognize the
relationship between letters and sounds. They are taught the sounds which the letters
of the alphabet represent and then try to build up the sound of a new or unfamiliar
word by saying it one sound at a time.
Whole language— an approach to reflect principles of both first and second language
acquisition:
Language is presented as a whole and not as isolated pieces: it attempts to teach
language in real contexts and situations and emphasizes the purposes for which a
language is used
Learning activities move from whole to part. For example, students might read a
whole article rather than part of it.
All four modes of language are used, thus lessons include all four skills of listening,
speaking, reading and writing.
Language is learned through social interaction with others, hence students often work
in pairs or groups instead of individually.
Teacher-centered vs. learner-centered teaching
Teacher-centered (fronted) teaching— a teaching style in which instruction is
closely managed and controlled by the teacher, where students often respond in
unison to teacher questions, and where whole-class instruction is preferred to other
methods.
Learner-centered teaching— methods of teaching which emphasizes the active role
of students in learning, tries to give learners more control over what and how they
learn and encourages learners to take more responsibility for their own learning. It is
encouraged by many current teaching approaches.
Target language vs. native language
Target language—the language which a person is learning
Native language— a first language or mother tongue which is acquired first.
Form vs. function (Language analysis vs. language use)
Form— the physical characteristics of a thing-> in language use, a linguistic form is
like the imperative
Function— a linguistic form can perform a variety of different functions: (Speech
acts)
Come here for a drink-> invitation
Watch out-> warning
Turn left at the corner-> direction
Pass the salt-> request
CALL-- computer-assisted language learning
such as collaborative projects, peer-editing of compositions, E-mail, web page design,
reinforcement of classroom material, games and simulations, computer adaptive
testing and speech processing.