Chapter 13: Victimology
Until recently, victims were not studied. They tended to be seen as passive
recipients of the criminal’s greed or anger, “in the wrong place at the wrong time.” The
study of victims, known as victimology, has resulted in theoretical and research studies,
and an awareness of the victim has grown in the public consciousness. There is now
recognition that victims have traditionally not been treated particularly well by the
criminal justice system. Victims suffer not only during the crime, but that there are also
sometimes physical and psychological complications.
Perhaps the first theory to explain victimization was developed by Wolfgang in
his study of murders in Philadelphia. Victim precipitation theory argues that there are
victims who actually initiated the confrontation that led to their injuries and deaths.
Although this was the result of the study of only one type of crime, the idea was first
raised that victims also might play a role in the criminal activity.
Subsequently, some general facts have been gathered about victimization.

Victimization is more likely at night (6:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.). Personal larceny is
more common during the day, with more serious crime occurring at night.

Crime occurs more in open public areas, although rapes and simple assaults tend
to occur in homes.

Crime is most frequent in central city areas.

Western urban areas have the highest crime rates, while the Northeast rural areas
have the lowest.

The National Crime Survey indicates that 25% of U.S. households have at least
one individual who was victimized in some way during the past year.
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
Personal theft is very common. About 99% of Americans will be the victim of
personal theft at some time in their lives, and 87% will be a theft victim three or
more times.

Men are twice as likely as women to be victims of robbery and assault. The
violent victimization rate for females has been fairly stable, but there has been a
20% increase for males in the last 15 years.

Victim risk diminishes rapidly after age 25. Contrary to popular belief,
grandparents are safer than their grandchildren.

Unmarried/never married people are more likely to be victims than the married or
widowed.

The poor are more likely to be victims of crime. They are far more likely to be
victims of violent crime, while the middle class are more likely to be victims of
property crime.

African Americans are victimized at the highest rates. Crime tends to be intraracial (criminals and victims of the same race) rather than interracial (criminal
and victim of different races). About 75% of crime is intra-racial.

Strangers commit about 60% of violent crimes. However, females are more
likely to know their assailants.

In some studies, over half of offenders report being under the influence of alcohol
and/or other drugs when they committed the offense resulting in incarceration.

The characteristics of those most likely to be victimized might be summarized as:
young, black, urban, poor and male.
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Theories of Victimization
A number of theories have been advanced to explain some of the findings
indicated above. Life-style theory, for example, argues that certain life-styles increases
one's exposure to criminal offenses and increases risk of victimization, while other lifestyles might reduce risk. For example, increased risk would be likely if a person is single,
associating with other young men (who are at greater risk for criminal activity), living in
urban areas, and going to public places late at night. Reduced risk would be associated
with staying home at night, living in a rural area, being married and staying at home, and
earning more money. According to this explanation, the probability of crime depends
partially on the activities of the victim. Crime is more likely when victims place
themselves in jeopardy.
This explanation would account for some of the findings with respect to
victimization. For example, although the elderly are more fearful of crime (perhaps
because they are more vulnerable), they go out less and take more precautions when they
do. Women also tend to take more precautions, and are more likely to be accompanied be
accompanied by a male or a group, rather than alone. Living in an urban area should
increase risk, because crime is more common in urban areas and the likelihood of
detection is lower.
The Proximity hypothesis suggests that crime is less a function of life-style, but
rather is based on close proximity. Victims and criminals live in the same high crime
areas, characterized by poor, densely populated, highly transient neighborhoods. The
probability of being victimized is more a function of where one lives than one's lifestyle.
Proponents of this argument point out that typically criminals do not go far from home to
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commit their crimes, and thus other people in their own neighborhoods will be more at
risk.
A related concept is the equivalent group hypothesis, which points out that
criminals and victims overall share similar characteristics because they are not entirely
separate groups. People who commit crimes are probably at higher risk for victimization,
both because of proximity to other criminals and because of their own lifestyles, which
involve going out at night and associating with other young males who are involved in
crime. In such associations, they place themselves at risk for becoming the victim of
crimes themselves. Some support for this concept comes from research that indicates that
crime victims as a group self-report a high amount of criminal activity. This hypothesis
does not indicate that all victims are criminals, but that criminals as a group are at higher
risk for becoming victims at some point because of the high-risk nature of their activities
and associations.
Routine activities theory argues that victimization is dependent on the routine
activities of people's daily lives. The volume and distribution of predatory crimes
depends on (1) the availability of suitable targets; (2) the absence of capable guardians;
and (3) the presence of motivated offenders. In other words, as people move about, there
must be opportunities (suitable targets), and it must appear that no one will be present, or
that no one will intervene if they do observe the crime. "Capable guardians" refers to
citizens who are watchful and who would take effective action if the saw criminal
activity. Of course, even if there were opportunities and no one to observe activity, crime
would not occur if they were not motivated to commit a crime.
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Routine activities theory accounts for the increase in crime since the 1960s as a
function of changes in activities. For example, the traditional neighborhood in the city
has declined as many people have left for the suburbs, leaving fewer capable guardians.
There are less people at home. Partly this is because more women have entered the
workforce rather than staying home, but perhaps more importantly more people have
automobiles and more places available for them to go, and simply stay home less. The
volume of wealth that can be easily transported has increased. Such changes have meant
that there are more opportunities for crime as a function of people's daily routines. Most
of Western Europe, Australia, Canada, and the United States have all experienced
increases in crime in the latter part of the 20th century, and many of these changes have
occurred in these countries.
Victim Services
The development of new programs and legislation has resulted from the study of
victims. Such programs have included:

Victim compensation programs, in which the state pays some of the financial
costs of the victim, particularly with respect to violent crime

Court services, which provide information and assistance to victims

Crisis intervention and counseling programs for victims, particularly in the case
of rape

Self-protection programs that teach people how to avoid victimization (target
hardening) and how to mobilize as a community to prevent victimization (such
as neighborhood watch)
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There has also been an ongoing debate about victim's rights, and what those rights
ought to be. Should relatives of victims be allowed to speak and discuss the impact of the
crime at parole hearings or at death penalty hearings? (many states now provide for this
measure). Should citizens be warned when an ex-felon moves into their neighborhood?
Some people believe that they should have the right to know and protect themselves.
Others believe that the felon has completed his punishment and should be allowed the
opportunity to rehabilitate himself without potential harassment from others.
This issue has been particularly debated with respect to "Meghan's Law," a law
proposed by the parents of a child murdered by a child molester. The perpetrator had a
prior history of molestation, and lived in Meghan's neighborhood. The parents
maintained that had they known of his past, they would have taken more precautions.
The proposed law, which has been passed in some states, allows neighborhood residents
to be informed when a sex offender moves into their neighborhood. There has been
controversy because some former offenders have been driven from neighborhoods, and
have difficulty finding a place to live--and who have served their sentences. These issues
are far from resolution.
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