Sheet B
GRANT AGENCY OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Justification of the proposal
(minimum 3 pages, maximum 10 pages)
Title: Social Distances in Stratification System of the Czech Republic
Principal investigator: PhDr. Jiří Šafr
Institute of Sociology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
Project duration: 3 years (2006-2008); Starting year: from 1. 1. 2006
this is the 2004 version of the project
Scientific aim
Social distance in stratification space will be studied without using prior classification (like
status or class) through two studies: an input qualitative research, and a representative survey of the
adult population. The goal is to map the whole stratification space including the groups of people who
are out of the labour market. A subjective social distance method and perception of social inequalities
will be used. This approach allows looking for the answer to the basic question whether there are
disjunctive relatively homogenous social groups being formed in Czech society which could be
considered social classes. The aim is to calibrate their relative distance and thus the level of their
closure. The obtained subjective distances will be compared with the objective ones. The predictive
power of the standard operational concepts of social standing will also be studied. Particular attention
will be paid to differences in the perception of social inequalities between men and women.
1. Summary of the contemporary state of the problem to be solved
Social stratification research in the Czech Republic
Solely conventional instruments have been implemented in previous research of social
stratification space in the Czech Republic. Conceptions arising from the assumption of prior
knowledge of the main dimensions of differentiation have been used in these studies. The means of
measuring are thus limited only to those dimensions that are behind their construction. A concept of
self-rating into (named) class categories and subjective social status has only been implemented in
measuring the subjective dimension of stratification. More open approaches studying perceptions and
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images of social (not only profession) groups are not frequent, as an exception is to mention e.g.
[Tuček 1996].
The studies from the beginning of the 1990’s have paid attention to subject matter such as
status inconsistency: the relation between the subjective and objective dimension of social
stratification. There also have been studies of the perception of both social equity and the legitimacy of
social inequalities as well as the consequence of the crystallization of social structure (e.g. voting
behaviour) and naturally, social mobility [Machonin, Tuček et al. 1996; Matějů, Vlachová et al. 2000;
Tuček et al. 2003]. Recently there has been a qualitative study of professional group mentalities (IS AS
CR, principal investigator Jiří Černý). Nevertheless, no special attention to forming relatively closed
social categories (classes), that is whether and how it proceeds, has been paid. Still no special
monograph has dealt directly with the question of class awareness, structuration processes, clear-cut or
disintegration of class structure. In order to look for answers to that question, the social distances (i.e.
relative intervals) among occupational groups respectively vertical dimensions of social categories
whether subjective or objective in character have not been studied. The reason could be an obvious
reluctance of Czech sociologists to elaborate a concept of social classs (a term naturally negatively
connotative) as well as an acquaintance with the conterporary discourse on nature and the disputability
of class analysis, see [Šanderová 1995; 1999; Pakulski, Waters 1996]. However, there are numerous
protagonists tending to modified class analysis of social structure [e.g. Crompton et al. 2000; Grusky,
Weeden 2001; Scott 2002] in foreign sociology even in the beginning of 21st century.
The operational concepts of the vertical social position
In sociological tradition there are a number of approaches to measuring the social standing of a
person. They represent not only different methodological and especially theoretical pressumptions but
reflect also diametrically different epistemology. In modern industrial society they are almost always
deduced from a profession which one occupies in some way. These concepts can be divided into three
branches. The first one represents standard classificaions of concepts of nominal classes or hierarchical
status, mostly based on collective identity (e.g. ISEI, EGP, SIOPS) [Ganzeboom, Treiman 2003]. The
second group is usually called social interaction (network scales). Vertical standing is derived from
mutual relations or positions among occupations. The rationale is based on the pursuit of common
dimension in a space of occupations or social groups and the distances among them (principally like
multidimensional scaling). The most known scales developed this way are CS, CAMSIS [Prandy 1990;
Prandy, Lambert 2003]. We can study objective or subjective (declared) distances (for an abstract see
[Grusky, Van Rompaey 1992]). The third group can be named reputational. It uses mostly sociometric
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techniques of personal reputation in a community, i.e. position in a local network studied by the
evaluation of an individual, who is a member of that community (e.g. EP of Warner).
Besides those well defined classifications (indices) of social standing we should also mention
an area of case studies employing anthropological, ethnographic, and phenomenological approaches
(ethnomethodology, constructivism) in social stratification research. Mostly those are local studies
which do not aim at constructing a status classification but try to study social inequalities through how
people understand and interpret them. Their distinctive feature is their concentration on the microsocial
level aiming at among others, the cultural formation of social classes (life styles, consumption), the
role of social capital in networks, the everyday practice of inequality construction, gender specifics and
so on, for an abstract see [Travers 1999].
The operational definition of occupational status scales (classification) can be distinguished in
two different forms regarding the deduction of social standing rather from collective or individual
attributes (identities). The combination of both is frequent (e.g. EGP – occupation as collective and
supervisory/ subordinate etc. status as individual identity). In the former, an individual is ascribed a
rate according his/her membership in a occupational group. The latter, less common deduction is
reached then according to his/her individual attributes (e.g. income, education). One can claim that in
stratification systems which can be characterised by established social structure and the high level of
the status component’s congruency, distinguishing between the collective or individual identity
respectively in the operational concept of social standing can be more or less meaningless. Such
demarcation is important in a society with a high proportion of status inconsistency (as Czech
definitely is) since membership of the same specific occupational group does not correspond to the
same level of (socioeconomic) status. Naturally, approaches arising from individual criteria have better
predictive potency. Here we might cite the Essex score derived from the specific individual forms of
capital [Gershuny 2002].
When we need to study the character of stratification space particularly, e.g. the class awareness
phenomenon, the process of social class formation etc., we can not depend only on operational
definitions of collective identity (i.e. profession). They contain inherent prior assumptions of social
structure character such as class vs. hierarchical conception, limitation only to occupational dimension.
Social distance and interaction
Social distances can be seen in two different planes. The first all-embracing one represents the
general problem of measuring both objective and subjective distances among predefined social
aggregates and in vertical dimensions selected beforehand. As the social distance or interactional
approach is in sociology classified the method striving for an unpredefined mapping of social space
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which means without an awareness of dimensions which determine inequalities. Objective social
standing is understood as a position in social networks in this case [Laumann , Guttman 1966; Prandy
1999; Jones, McMillan 2001; Bottero, Prandy 2003].
Three areas of stratification research can be specified in relation to the methods measuring
social distances (based on interactions) employing the principle of sociometric techniques. The first
area represents mapping social space with objective social distance intervals given by the density of the
occurence of linkages in social networks (the occupation of a friend or a mate is the indicant). The
second is also derived from distances (mostly occupations) but employes a subjective dimension. It
uses techniques inspired by studies in social psychology, mainly various scalograms. The third group
of studies originates from community studies based on personal reputation.
Most studies based on the interaction principle and measuring the distances of social groups
have not intended to construct their own new categorization i.e. scales of social groups (occupational).
Their cognitive aims focused on the stratification space and verifying the validity of existing status
conceptions (such as SEI or prestige scales) [Kahl, Davis 1955], or aspired to study and test hypotheses
whether the nature of stratification space would be characterised as continuous or closed entities (i.e.
classes) [Ellis 1957; Laumann 1965; Laumann, Guttman 1966]. Furthermore other studies have dealt
with the question of class consciousness [Laumann, Senter 1975; Prandy 1979], cultural differences
(distances) of occupational groups [Glenn, Alston 1968] or stereotypes related to images of social
classes [Jackman, Senter 1980]. The Index of Job desirability (IJD) was created [Jackman, Senter
1980] combining subjectively evaluated attributes with objective economic qualities of particular
occupations [Jencks, Perman, Rainwater 1988].
The development of an alternative measurement of occupational grading was the aim of the
project of social interaction and stratification scale CAMSIS [Prandy, Lambert 2003], originally known
as “The Cambridge Scale of Occupations“ [Prandy 1990]. CS indicator is based on patterns of social
interaction represented by the frequency of spouse occupational combination (originally also ragarding
respondents’ friends). A similar principle of social distance but in an intergenerational dimension
(respondent’s parent’s occupation) was used in the construction of the SSIC occupational scale
(Symmetric scaling of intergenerational continuity) [Rytina 1992].
Problems of social interaction in stratification space have not been much at the centre of attention
in Czech sociology. Already at the end of 1960’s were social contacts (the position of friends) studied
in the scope of a large stratification survey [Petrusek 1969] and somewhat extensively in a pilot study
self-assessment and self-identification of social position (an opened question about the character of
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stratification) [Jungmann 1969]. During the last decade researchers have particularly examined intermarriage and partnership homogamy [Vlachová 1996; Katrňák, Kreidl, Fónadová 2003, Tuček 2003],
and also social contacts and friendship patterns [Vlachová 1996; Řeháková 2003].
Likewise little attention is paid to the question of subjective distances among different social
groups though public opinion surveys do not omit this topic. In connection with social cohesion the
distance from socially problematic groups (spontaneously named advanteaged or disadvantaged groups
as well as the level of verbal xenophobia to national and ethnic minorities) has been studied. These
attempts concern a vertical social dimension only marginally.
Besides the most frequent classifications of stratification simply copyied from foreign and
international research (i.e. ISEI, EGP, SEI) national occupational prestige studies (1990, 1992 and the
latest 2003, not speaking of the smaller ones limited to public opinion pool in 1996 and 2001) have
been done [Tuček 2003b]. The outcome of these studies is not any specific typological index (of
groups) of occupations that could be used in other research. In Czech sociology there has been a
tradition of operational concept of multidimensional synthesising status index (MDS) [Machonin et al.
1969; Machonin, Tuček et al. 1996; Tuček et al. 2003], which involves components of individual
characteristics of personal social standing (education, managerial position, work complexity, earnings
and life-style). However even this concept does not include members of society outside the labour
market (housewives, students, the retired etc.).
As far as we know, nobody has tried to map vertical social space in a systematic way (i.e.
distances among social groups, the question of social class formation etc.) using methods of social
distance and interaction [Prandy 1999] whether objective or subjective. This is in spite of the fact that
this approach has had a long tradition in many social-psychological and sociometric studies and it
offers a method of inquiring into social structure without prior assumptions of its character.
This proposal assumes mapping of social stratification space exactly by means of the method of
the subjective social distance as well as a subjective evaluation of social differentiation including selfidentification and will compare results obtained this way with information gained from the objective
social standing variables (also in a secondary data analysis).
2. Conceptual and methodological approaches proposed to project solution
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The project has two main aims: first to explore stratification space without prior clasification
(type of status or class, see the further questions) and secondly to verify the predictive power of
existing standard operational concepts of social standing. Our ambition is to map the whole
stratification space including groups of people who are out of the labour market. The subjective social
distance method and perception of social inequalities will be used.
The application of this approach will help to look to an answer to the basic question of whether
there disjunctive relatively homogenous social groups, which might be considered as social classes (in
different sociological perspectives) forming in Czech society, and to attempt to identify the distances
between them. The research will contribute to the answers to the following questions and topic. Can
we debate whether there are social classes existing as real entities with clearly determinated borders in
Czech society? Is there any potential for collective action? Is the stratification space unidimensional or
multidimensional? How do people understand structuralization and differentiation of categories in the
society? Is the character of social structure (if it is one-dimensional) gradually hierarchical or does it
correspond to closed categories? That represents a question of coexistence of classes and strata (clearcut vs. disintegration of class structure, i.e. hypothesis of nonlinear social classes as subset of
hierarchical strata [Šanderová 1999]).
Not only from a methodological point of view is it important to evaluate various indices of
social standing (alternative vs. standard) and to compare their predictive power, but it is also very
important to pay attention to gender particularity of social structure perception. It represents a question
of the existence of separate female and male stratification system.
Proposed methodology
To solve set goals and answer the questions two methodologically different studies will assist.
The first represents a qualitative probe consisting of 30 semistructured interviews with people coming
from different social groups. This study will serve not only as a pilot study of the following
representative survey (tuning of scaling methods) but also as a data base for interpretative analysis. It
enables detailed insight into problems of the social construction of inequalities and an answer to the
question considering the significance of occupational group membership for general standing in
society.
The centre of the proposed project rests on the following quantitative research in the second year
of duration. The sample will represent the adult population in the Czech Republic. The aim is to map
stratification space with special techniques of scaling, mainly on a subjective level. The sample range
will be 1000 respondents selected on the basis of quota, representing region, age and education groups.
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The method we intend to employ in this research would benefit by following methods and
techniques for the investigation of distances between (groups of) occupations, but also adopted for
social groups out of the labour market: modified Bogardus Social Distance Scale [Laumann 1965;
Laumann, Senter 1976] (used also in social cohesion research for horizontal dimension [Tuček
2003c]), stereotypes in occupational group perception i.e. images of social groups [Jackman, Senter
1980]. Cultural distances between social categories could also be studied [e.g. Glenn, Alston 1968]
and of course traditional self-evaluation into social class/stratum [e.g. Tuček 2003b]. Aside standard
variables of social status (education, occupation, income) there will be questions serving for finding
objective social distance to learn (a occupation of a respondent’s spouse and three friends) so as it
would be possible to compare subjective with objective characters of social standing.
The collected data will be analysed with methods of multidimensional scaling or correspondence
analysis in exploring dimensions of stratification space and the specification of their significance. A
detailed comparison of subjective and objective dimension of social status will be done. The obtained
results will be compared with conventional variables of vertical social standing namely with existing
results obtained from research, which carried out by the research department Transformation of Social
Structure (apart form other Ten Years of Social Transformation in the Czech and Slovak Republics,
Transformation and Modernization, Actor 2003).
Time schedule
1st. year
-
bibliographic work, theoretical preparation, elaboration of qualitative research methodology
-
consultation of method problems (e.g. participation in a workshop)
-
qualitative research – data collection (semistructured interviews)
-
publications: a review article (problems of social distance, theory, methodology – an article for The
Sociological Journal)
2nd year
-
realisation of quantitative research
-
publication: findings from the qualitative study (Sociological Papers, an article for The
Sociological Journal or The Czech Sociological Review)
-
presentation of interim results (seminars, a conference)
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3. year
-
detailed analysis of quantitative data
-
publication: results and comparison with existing conceps (Sociological Papers, an article for The
Czech Sociological Review)
-
presentation of final conclusions (a conference, seminars)
3. Research group
The project team
Members of the research department Transformation of the Social Structure (IS AS CR) will
participate in the project. The deparment enjoys a high-quality background and long time practice in
the research of social stratification and postcommunist transformation. The core of the team will
consist of young applicants, who will work under the supervision of two experienced scientific
workers.
The project is supported by extensive representative research where professional work will be
necessary (minimally two workers) to preparate a questionnaire (scaling methods), methods of
sampling and in the analysis of the gathered data. Participation of a scholar of interpretative sociology
is unavoidable both during the pilot qualitative study and at the final stage of interpretation.
The proposed principal investigator Jiří Šafr (1972) is a (part time) research worker in the
research department Transformation of the Social Structure. He is finishing his doctoral study of
sociology at the Institute of Sociological Studies at the Faculty of Social Sciences of Charles
University (ISS UK FSV) where he also teaches a seminar of Czech Social Structure. He is interested
in issues of social mobility, legitimacy of transformational conceptions and the conceptualisation of
social standing in stratification research. He participated in a longitudinal study “Family 89-98” and in
a far-reaching stratification research “Ten Years of Social Transformation in the Czech and Slovak
Republics” (1998-2000). Should the grant be awarded, the investigator will be paid a salary from
profits of the project (working capacity 70 % of full time) during its duration.
Ivana Hejhalová (1979), PhD student (ISS UK FSV), who has a diploma in sociology/social
anthropology will participate in the project. She specializes in the methodological and theoretical
application of qualitative approaches in sociology (anthropological, etnografical and narrative
research). She will be vital to the entire project but most especially to the success of the qualitative
study. Recruitment of this graduate student to the Sociological Institute of AS CR is limited to the
duration of the grant.
Milan Tuček (1948), the head of the research department Transformation of the Social Structure
will be the co-ordinator and supervisor of young workers. Having a diploma in mathematics and
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statistics, he has been working in empirical research more than two decades. During that time he has
obtained a high degree of sociological erudition. He is the author or co-author of many papers and
treatises in the problems of post communist transformation, social structure research, social mobility,
stratification, and strategies of social groups and research on the family. He has been the principal
investigator or co-investigator in many research projects recently e.g., “Ten Years of Social
Transformation in the Czech and Slovak Republics” (1998-2000), “The Formation of Group
Mentalities in the Czech Republic after 1989” (2001-2002) and at present “Czech Elites on the
Threshold of EU Accession” (2003-2005). He has gained experience in many international projects
done in co-operation with sociological institutes from Slovakia, Poland, Slovenia, France, Germany,
and the Netherlands. He has been lecturing at several schools at Charles University for about ten years.
In addition to M . Tuček, another scientific worker Lumír Gatnar (1956) will participate.
Holding a diploma in mathematics, he has specialised in the research of social transformation,
modernization and Czech transformation elites. His contribution will be in the elaboration of research
techniques for gathering data in the quantitative research and consultation and in statistical analysis. He
was the rincipal investigator of qualitative research “The Role of Economic and Political Elites in the
Transformation of Czech Society” (2001-2002).
The team of investigators formed in this way provides a long-term guarantee that they will not
only prepare and implement both the proposed research but also ensure the publication output of the
collected results. This project will benefit from multiparadigmatic and innovative approaches to the
study of social inequalities as well as long-term experience with the issue.
Participants of the research group and their working capacity
Mgr. Jiří Šafr, IS AS CR; PhD student ISS UK FSV (32 years)
– 70 % working capacity (of full time)
Mgr. Ivana Hejhalová, PhD student ISS UK FSV (25 years)
– 25 % working capacity (of full time)
Milan Tuček, CSc., grad. mathematician, IS AS CR (56 years)
– 10 % working capacity (of full time)
RNDr. Lumír Gatnar, IS AS CR (48 years)
– 20 % working capacity (of full time)
Average age
= (32 * 1,0 + 25 * 0,25 + 56 * 0,1 + 48 * 0,2) / (1,0 + 0,25 + 0,1 + 0,2)
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= 53,45 / 1,55 = 34,5 years
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Professional characteristics of an investigatorial institution
The Institute of Sociology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic (IS AS CR) was
established in its present form in 1990. The Institute of Sociology is engaged in the pursuit of research
into contemporary society and in the provision of post-graduate education in the field of sociology. It
conducts ongoing and one-time empirical surveys, comparative research studies, public opinion
surveys, and case studies, applying modern qualitative and quantitative research methods, and it also
cultivates the development of sociological theory and methodology. Research at the Institute also
makes use of information, concepts and methods drawn from related scholarly fields, such as
economics, law, political science, demography, social geography, and gender studies.
The scientific aim of The Institute of Sociology is the analysis of long-term social processes in
Czech society in the context of European integration politics, the development of a knowledge society,
and human, social and cultural capital. The institute also offers a doctoral programme in sociology in
corroboration with the Institute of Sociological Studies at the Faculty of Social Sciences of Charles
University (ISS UK FSV). Since 2002 the Institute of Sociology has offered two post-graduate degrees,
making it possible to acquire a doctorate in sociology or in public and social policy. Both full-time and
combined post-graduate study programmes are offered.
Key words: social distance, social interaction, class awareness, class consciousness, scaling of
occupations, occupational structure, social stratification
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