Aristotle University
Of Thessaloniki
March 2000
School of Biology
Maria Lazaridou
Biodiversity report
Carnivores and reindeer herding
In the Swedish mountain region
Kerstin Nordstrom
Introduction
In the north part of Sweden we have a grand beautiful mountain area. This is an area with
changing nature where you can find both moors and high mountain peaks. In this area we
have a big flora and fauna. Some of the species you only find in this mountain area and it
makes it a little bit unique. To maintain these nice values the Swedish Government has
made up some environmental targets of the mountain area in order to protect the origin,
the biodiversity and also the natural and cultural values of the mountain area.
In my report I have principally written about two natural and cultural values, the large
predators and the farming of reindeer, which both contribute to the biodiversity. I think
these two values are important to protect because they have both an old tradition in
Sweden. However between this two values there is a conflict. The reindeer farmers have
problems with the predators who eat their reindeer and this results in a heavy loss in their
income on the other hand the populations of the predators are quite small and so they are
under protection and the reindeer farmers are not allowed to shoot them. This conflict is
not easy to solve.
In my report I will first make a short description about the Swedish mountain area, just to
orientate you, then I will describe the two natural and cultural values each, the predators
and the Sami with its reindeer-herding and afterwards the conflict between them. I will
also give you some information what the Environmental Protecting Agency (department
that is administered by the government) have done and are doing for the both sides.
The mountain area in Sweden
When you hear the word mountain maybe you get a feeling of big mountains with ice and
snow on it. However the mountain area in Sweden is a little bit different from that. It has
very mixed vegetation where you both can find moors and rather small mountain peaks,
compared with the Alps. This is because the mountain chain in Sweden is rather old and
has during a long time been exposed to forces like weather, winds and glacial periods,
which have caused the rock to crumble away.
The mountain area was formed about 370 million years ago, when the North American
and the North European plate collided. The mountain chain, which then was formed, gets
the name Kaledoniderna. During many years this chain was exposed to forces that
decomposed it to a level ground. However 250 million years ago magma began to drive
through the crust of the earth, and the big continent was split up to two continents. Since
the new North European plate was much lighter than the two continents together it began
to rise and the areas of Kaledoniderna that were decomposed before became now a high
plateau – the mountain chain of Scandinavia.
.
The mountain area in Sweden ranges
from Transtrands fjällen in the south to
the Treriksröset in the north. It covers a
distance of about 850 km, which is
about 20 % of the whole Swedish area.
Grundsten,C &Palmgren,G: Fäjllboken, Raben & Sjögren 1993
The mountain area is divided in different vegetation zones, ordinary pine forest, mountain
pine forest, mountain birch forest and bare mountain. The mountain pine forest is
composed of small spruces with straggly branches. The forest is mostly very thin and is
slowly growing. The mountain birch forest consists of deciduous forest, mainly mountain
birch. The mountain birch is a type of ordinary birch but it is much smaller about 10-20m
and it has much thicker leaves, which is an adaptation to the climate in the mountain.
Bare mountain is the region above the tree line that only has low vegetation like lichens,
thicket of willows and different kinds of heather for example blue mountain heath
(Phyllodoce caerulea). At the top of the mountain there is no vegetation at all just bare
rock.
The flora in the mountain
The mountain area is very harsh environment for the vegetation. Most of the year the
vegetation is covered whit snow, and it has to face low temperatures. After all you can
find more than 700 different vascular plants in the mountain area, but only one third of
them are native species of the area. There is also some species which are endemic like
Fjällvallmo ( Papaver radicatum) and Fjällviva ( Primula scandinavica). Many different
factors are determining where you can find the different plants, for example the
topography, the latitude and the climate. These factors also affect the flowering season. In
the north part of the mountain environment the season is about 100 days but in the south
part the season is about 120 days. The short season in the north part is compensated of the
midnight sun that makes the night quite light and the plants can grow day and night.
Carnivores in the mountain area
Sweden’s four species of large carnivores – the brown bear, wolf, wolverine and lynx
have all been heavily depleted in numbers for a long time, but whit the exception of the
wolverine they have recovered in recent years. Possible explanations for this are legal
protection and restrictions on hunting. Following Sweden’s entry into the European
Community they also come under the Eu Directive on the Conservation of Natural
Habitats and of the wild Fauna and Flora, in which they are classified as strictly
protected. All of the four species live in the forest below the bare mountain and all of
them provide a risk in the reindeer-herding regions, that’s why I have chosen to write
about them.
The brown bear (Ursus arctos)
In Sweden you only can find the brown bear in the north parts in the mountain area. The
brown bear’s height ranges from 135 to 250 cm and its weight is between 100 and 300
kg. The main food is usually different kinds of berries, roots, ants and calf from reindeer.
During the autumn the brown bears are eating nearly four times more then it use in it’s
metabolism because they need it during the winter when they go to into hibernation.
Until 1981 the brown bears were hunted during special hunting season and the total
population was heavily decreased but in 1981 licensed hunting was introduced, whit the
Environmental Protection Agency deciding year by year the number of bears that could
be shot during a certain period in a number of defined areas. After Sweden became a
member of the Eu bear hunting was changed again. It is now only permissible by
authority of culling provisions. Today there are nearly 1000 brown bears in Sweden.
Wolf (Canis lupis)
The wolf resembles a big dog whit a hanging tail. It’s a very strong and enduring animal,
which can walk nearly 200 km per day. The wolf often lives in a pack but many wolfs in
Sweden lives alone. During the summertime they mostly eat hare, birds and small rodent
but during the wintertime they prefer to hunt reindeer, foxes and elks. 1966 the wolf
came under legal protection because in that time there were only a few of them left.
However since then the numbers of the animals have increased with 30% and there are
now nearly 50 wolfs in Sweden. The total population is however still too little because
there is a big risk in inbreeding and because of that it can be difficult for the animals to
adapt to the environment when it change.
Wolverine (Gulo gulo)
The wolverine looks like a little bear and its weight is around 20 kg. It is a very strong
and enduring animal and is very good in swimming and climbing trees. You can find the
wolverine both at the mountain moor and also lower down in the forest. It is a very
reserved animal and it requires big areas and unspoiled countryside to survive. During the
summer the wolverines mostly eat small mammals, birds, green plants and different kinds
of berries. During the winter the main food is reindeer.
In Sweden the wolverines was hunted until 1969 when it became legally protected.
According to surveys, which were made during 1999, there are nearly 300 wolverines in
Sweden today.
Lynx (Felis lynx)
Lynx is the largest feline in Europe. The animal’s height is nearly 1 m and it has a yellow
brown fur in the summer and in the winter the fur gets tighter and becomes a light gray
color. The lynx is always on the move and during one year it can cover an area as big as
1000 square kilometers. The main food is hare, bird and reindeer. The lynx has a very
good sense of hearing, which it uses when it looks for food. It can hear reindeer, which
are scratching in the snow looking for lichens, in several hundreds of meters.
The lynx became legally protected the first time 1928, but 1943 the number of lynx had
increased so much so it was legal to hunting the lynx again. In 1986 the total population
had decreased again so it became once more legally protected. According to surveys that
were made during 1999 there are today nearly 1500 lynx in Sweden.
Reindeer-farmers (Sami) – a Swedish cultural heritage
The population in Sweden is about 9 million and about 20 000 of these represent an
ethnic group called Sami. They are living in the north part of Sweden and they have
probably immigrated from Ural about 6000 years ago. The Sami have their own culture
and their own traditions that mostly are effected by the nature and the mountain
environment. They also have their own language, which is completely different from the
Swedish national language. The Sami have a long tradition of reindeer herding and
reindeer hunting. Until the sixteenth century the Sami hunted only wild reindeer, but after
that they began to have small herd of reindeer of their own. The reindeer herding has
developed during the centuries and today it is a whole industry in Sweden.
Reindeer management is only allowed to be running of Lapps who are members of a
Sami-village. A Sami-village is both an administrative – economic unit and a geographic
area. Today Sweden has 51 Sami-villages
Reindeer management
Reindeer management is running in a huge area and the reindeer farmers are dependent
on big pasture for their reindeer. During the year the reindeer are roaming between
different pasture in the mountain area and the farmers are moving with them. The
reindeer farmers don’t own the mountain area where they have the reindeer, but they are
allowed to use the pasture and if there is some disturbance in the area they bill be
compensated from the state.
The reindeer form a flock and they are grazing together the whole year. The reindeer
herds are always roaming between different mountain areas to get new fresh pasture. In
the spring they mainly eat lichens, grass and herbs. During this time the calves are born
and for that reason the reindeer are very sensitive to disturbances and they need
protection from external risks like predators. During the summer the reindeer are moving
between the bare mountain and the forest in the valleys. At the day they are at the bare
mountain and in the evening they move down to the valley. In this way they avoid the
heat and the insects at the day and get a lots of food in evenings. It is important that there
is good food resources in the summer because during this time they need to store fat and
carbohydrates so they survive through the winter. In autumn, in November the reindeer
slaughter begins. The calves that are then killed weighing about 30-50 kg. During the
wintertime the reindeers are in the mountain pine forests and the food is mainly lichens,
brushwood bilberry sprigs and lingo berry sprigs. The reindeer has a very dense fur and is
well adapted to snow and low temperatures.
Grundsten,C &Palmgren,G: Fäjllboken, Raben & Sjögren 1993
Reindeer in the Swedish mountain
The predators – a problem for the reindeer management
The large carnivores, wolf, wolverine, lynx and brown bear cause every year large
income losses to the reindeer farmers. Brown bears and wolfs don’t injure the reindeers
so much but the wolverine and lynx cause big damages at the reindeers and the reindeer
farmers sustain heavy income losses because of this.
Most of the reindeer get injured in the wintertime or during the season in the spring when
the reindeers are calving. The snow is a critical factor affecting the result of lynx and
wolverine’s hunting. Because when there is a lot of snow the reindeer have problems to
run away from the predators. The predators are easily running on the top of the snow, but
the reindeer are sinking in the snow when they try to run. The wolverine is mostly
running straight ahead to the pack of reindeer without any plan. If it catches up with a
reindeer it jumps up to the dorsal part and bites the reindeer there. Sometimes it can be a
violence fight. The lynx is a much better hunter than the wolverine. Since the lynx is
awake during the nights it locate the reindeer with its sense of hearing and then it creeps
to the pack of reindeer. The attack is mostly very fast.
Wolverine
Lynx
http://www.de5stora.com
http://www.de5stora.com
Between 1974 and 1986 the Environmental Protection Agency carried out studies of the
connection between predators and reindeer. The main findings concern calf mortality
which amounted to about 18 per cent during the first year of life with predators mainly
wolverine and lynx accounting for roughly two-thirds.
Breakdown of causes of death among reindeer calves up to one year of age.
http://www.environ.se/dokument/natur/rovdjur/rovdjur.html
Since the carnivores are legally protected the reindeer farmers are not allowed to shoot
the predators in order to protect their reindeer so instead they get state compensation.
Surveys of large carnivores have been conducted in the mountain region since 1974. The
methods have change with the passing of time. Since 1996 the reindeer region has been
surveyed every winter by the county administrative board and the Sami-villages since a
new system of compensation for predator damage was introduced.
Compensation for predators damage
Reindeer have made up the absolute majority 98 % of the domestic livestock killed by
predators in recent decades and so it is in the reindeer-herding regions that Sweden have
had and still have by far the biggest problems where our large carnivores are concerned.
Until 1996, state compensation was paid for reindeer found to has been killed or injured
by predators. In addition a certain amount of compensation was paid to the Sami-villages
for the inconvenience that the presence of predators entailed. However 1991 the National
Environmental Protection Agency put forward a proposal about a new system of
compensation and 1996 the system was radically altered. Since then the compensation is
no longer based on the finding of reindeer killed by predators. Instead the compensation
paid to the Sami-village is based above all on the occurrence of predators and on the
number of predator reproductions verified by inventories in the Sami-village. The
compensation was 1998 limited to a maximum of M SEK 30 (  1200 M drx).
1998 the state paid the total amount M SEK 30 to the Sami-villages because of injuries
by predators. However the predators were considerably more than the representative of
the National Environmental Protection Agency had thought so because of that 1999 the
compensation limit was raised to M SEK 35 (1400 M drx). This new system implies
that the reindeer farmers would get 1000 SEK ( 40 000 drx) per reindeer they lost.
However the meat of an ordinary reindeer has double the value. So the reindeer farmers
sustain heavy losses in their incomes when the predator takes their reindeer. The injures
from the predators have during the last years increased so much which make it difficult to
keep a profitable reindeer herding.
Conclusion
The Swedish mountain area is unique in many ways. Here you can find amongst other
things a valuable flora in which it is species which you can’t find in other areas, a lively
cultural – the Sami with their reindeer herding and many different species of animals.
There are four species of large carnivores in the Swedish mountain the brown bear, wolf,
wolverine and lynx. All of them are legal protected and they are also covered under Eu
Directive on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of wild Fauna and Flora in which
they are classified as strictly protected. For a long time the carnivores have been heavily
depleted in numbers but they have recovered in recent years thanks to legal protection. I
think that the species have a great value and contribute to preserve the origin and the
biodiversity in the mountain environment. However the predators provide at the same
time a risk to the reindeer herding which mostly use the same area as the predators do.
The reindeer herding is a cultural heritage, which also has a great value and make the
north part of the country more colorful. Furthermore the grazing reindeer contribute to
keep up the biodiversity and the productivity in the mountain vegetation, as long as the
reindeer grazing doesn’t get to intensive.
The Swedish Government has suggested in some targets concerning the quality of the
environment that the mountain scenery should have a high level of originality, in terms of
biodiversity, experiences, and also the values concerning nature and culture in this
particular area. The targets of the environmental quality means that among other things
the mountain scenery shall preserve the look, which, it has gotten from the reindeer,
pasture. Both because of the reindeer pasture and for the mountain scenery’s sake it is
important that the reindeer pasture is conducted in a way, which is long-term and
hardwearing.
Every year, the Swedish Government compensates the Sami because the predators are
living in the reindeer-herding regions. But this compensation isn’t enough to cover all the
income losses that are caused by the predators. Because of this illegal hunting of the
predators occurs. The conflict between the reindeer management and the preservation of
the populations of predators is a difficult problem to solve. However I think it is a
important problem for Sweden to deal with to preserve the biodiversity in the mountain
area. We have to find a solution so no more illegal hunting occurs. I think we booth need
the predators and a profitable reindeer management in the same area because this will
contribute to a great biodiversity in the Swedish mountain environment.
Bibliography
Books:
Grundsten, C & Palmgren G: Fjällboken, Raben &Sjögren 1993
Nylen B: Fjällflora, Nordstedts 1996
Holmåsen, L: Växter och djur I fjällen, Interbook Publishing AB 1974
Internet:
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
http://www.environ.se
Information about the mountain area
http://www.fjallen.nu
Information about the carnivores
http://www.de5stora.com