Immigration
Our first step toward addressing the big questions in this course will be to determine who has
been a part of the “community.” That is, who is here, when did they come, from where? The
movement to cities (summarized in Slide 1 below) came in several overlapping waves, including
immigration (people coming from outside the United States) and domestic migration (people
coming from other places inside the United States). This lecture will focus on the three big
waves of immigration that have affected American cities: (1) from about 1850 to about 1890,
immigrants from northern and western Europe (specifically, Germany, Ireland, and the United
Kingdom) predominated. Many of these immigrants came to cities in the northeast and midwest;
New York, Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, Milwaukee, and other industrial cities saw large
increases in their populations due to immigration. German immigrants were especially
numerous in the 1850s and 1880s and several cities had large German neighborhoods. Cities like
Boston and New York were characterized as well by large Irish populations.
(2) During the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, immigration to the United States
came mainly from southern and eastern Europe. This surge of immigration peaked in 1907 when
over 1.2 million people entered the country. By 1910, Poles, Italians, Slovaks, Hungarians,
Finns, and other European immigrants comprised the majority of workers in basic industries like
steel manufacturing and coal mining. These immigrants tended to be crowded into segregated
ethnic communities in center cities in the northeastern and midwestern United States. Because
of anti-immigrant sentiment during World War I (1914-1917), efforts were made to
“Americanize” immigrants and limit their numbers. Immigration laws were passed in 1921 and
1924 that severely restricted European immigration. Although these succeeded in stemming the
flow of immigration, the impact of the foreign born on cities was already profound.
(3) After 1945, immigration picked up and assumed a new pattern. Immigration had been quite
low from the late 1920s through the 1940s. From 1945 through the 1970s, immigration would
average about 250,000 to 300,000 per year. By 1978, the annual volume of immigration reached
600,000. The result was over 10 million legal entrants to the United States between 1971 and
1990, accompanied by an unknown number of illegal entrants.
The post-1965 group of immigrants differed from early-twentieth century immigrants. Recent
immigrants have come mainly from Asia and Latin America. During the 1980s, Asia and Latin
America accounted for about 85 percent of the total immigrant pool, with Mexicans, Chinese,
Filipinos, and Koreans leading the list. Their destinations have also varied from the early
twentieth century. Increasingly, new immigrants are going to the south and west, with Cubans
predominating in Miami and Mexicans in the southwest and California.
Slide 1
Major Demographic Changes:
Who and Where are We?
•
•
•
•
•
Immigration: 3 major flows
The Great Migrations
Rural to Urban
Dispersion: Frostbelt, Sunbelt
Deconcentration
– Decentralization
– Suburbanization
This slide shows the major demographic movements that we will review in the first three lectures of this
course. Remember that immigration refers to the movement of foreigners to the United States. The
other movements are all domestic migrations (people already in the United States moving to cities, or in
the case of suburbanization, moving to the outskirts of cities). The Great Migrations (which we will hear
about next week) refers to the movement of African-Americans out of the southern states, mainly to
cities in the northeast, midwest, urban west, and cities in the South. Although both of these movements
(immigration and the Great Migrations) were part of a larger transition of rural people to cities, we can
also distinguish the movement of rural white Americans to cities in the twentieth century especially.
Dispersion refers to the growth of large cities outside the northeastern and midwestern United States.
Finally, I will use deconcentration to refer to the movement of businesses and people to the outskirts of
cities; suburbanization, suburban sprawl, and the growth of edge cities will be a part of this process. All
of these movements are vital for understanding who is part of the urban context. These demographic
movements are among the most powerful forces (perhaps the most powerful force) shaping cities. They
will influence how we conceptualize community and how we think about our obligations toward other
city dwellers.
Slide 2
300,000,000
Total Population
281,421,906
250,000,000
248,709,873
226,545,805
200,000,000
203,210,158
179,325,671
150,000,000
150,216,110
131,669,275
122,775,046
100,000,000
105,710,620
91,972,266
75,994,575
50,000,000
62,622,250
50,155,783
38,558,371
31,443,321
23,191,876
0
2000 1990 1980 1970 1960 1950 1940 1930 1920 1910 1900 1890 1880 1870 1860 1850
We need a frame of reference for talking about demographic change. This slide presents the population
for the entire US each decade since 1850. Note that in 1850, there were about 23 million people here.
The population more than doubled by 1880 (about 50 million). It more than doubled again by 1920 (105
million). By 1970, it had doubled again (to over 200 million). And by 2010, it is estimated to be over 300
million. Note that the growth is fairly steady, except for the 1930s when the Great Depression caused a
slowing of population growth (not a decline, just not as much growth).
Slide 3
2,000,000
Annual Immigration
1991: 1,826,595
1,800,000
1,600,000
1907: 1,285,349
1,400,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
1820
1824
1828
1832
1836
1840
1844
1848
1852
1856
1860
1864
1868
1872
1876
1880
1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
0
Immigration has not been constant. Here you see yearly totals since 1820. There are notable spikes in
the 1850s, 1870s, 1880s, 1900s, and 1920s, before a prolonged slowdown from the 1920s to the 1980s.
Recall that the country’s overall population was much larger in the 1970s, 80s, and 90s, than in earlier
periods, so while the absolute number of immigrants in the early 1890s was about the same as in the
early 1980s, they represented a much smaller percentage in the latter decade. The all-time peak of
immigration occurred in 1907, when 1,285,349 immigrants entered the US. Fifty percent more
(1,825,595) entered in 1991, but the population was more than 2 ½ times larger in 1990 than in 1910, so
while immigration represented about 1.4 percent of the population in 1907 it was only .7 percent in
1991 (or about half as much by percentage).
Slide 4
10,000,000
9,000,000
9,775,398
Immigration by Decade
8,202,388
8,000,000
7,000,000
6,347,380
6,244,379
6,000,000
5,248,568
5,000,000
4,295,510
4,000,000
4,248,203
3,694,294
3,213,749
3,000,000
2,814,554 2,742,137
2,499,268
2,081,261
2,000,000
1,427,337
1,000,000
0
538,381
128,502
856,608
699,375
Here you see immigration figures by decade. It is clear that the 1850s, 1880s, and 1900s saw enormous
numbers of immigrants entering the country; compared to the population, especially, these decades,
and to a lesser extent the 1910s, were profoundly affected by immigration. Note that immigration
drops dramatically between the 1900s and the 1930s and 1940s, when the Great Depression and then
World War II slowed the movement of people to this country. Immigration picks up again in the 1950s,
but of course the population had grown as well. Not until the 1990s, does immigration return to levels
(relative to the population) that we had seen in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Slide 5
Year
2000
1990
1980
1970
1960
1950
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1860
1850
Total
281,421,906
248,709,873
226,545,805
203,210,158
179,325,671
150,216,110
131,669,275
122,775,046
105,710,620
91,972,266
75,994,575
62,622,250
50,155,783
38,558,371
31,443,321
23,191,876
Native
250,314,017
228,942,557
212,465,899
193,590,856
169,587,580
139,868,715
120,074,379
108,570,897
91,789,928
78,456,380
65,653,299
53,372,703
43,475,840
32,991,142
27,304,624
20,947,274
Foreign
31,107,889
19,767,316
14,079,906
9,619,302
9,738,091
10,347,395
11,594,896
14,204,149
13,920,692
13,515,886
10,341,276
9,249,547
6,679,943
5,567,229
4,138,697
2,244,602
% Native
% Foreign
88.9
92.1
93.8
95.3
94.6
93.1
91.2
88.4
86.8
85.3
86.4
85.2
86.7
85.6
86.8
90.3
11.1
7.9
6.2
4.7
5.4
6.9
8.8
11.6
13.2
14.7
13.6
14.8
13.3
14.4
13.2
9.7
Here you can see the effects of the swings discussed in earlier slides. Note that the number of foreign
born persons in the US almost doubles between 1850 and 1860, and we have not seen that big a jump
since then. The foreign population increases notable in other decades, such as the 1880s and 1900s and
1990s, but note as well the substantial drop between 1930 and 1940 that continues until 1970, when
the percentage of foreign born drops to its lowest level ever: 4.7 percent.
Slide 6
35,000,000
16.0
# Foreign
14.8
14.7
30,000,000
% Foreign
13.2
13.6
14.0
14.4
13.3
13.2
12.0
25,000,000
11.6
11.1
10.0
20,000,000
9.7
8.8
15,000,000
6.9
6.2
10,000,000
8.0
7.9
6.0
5.4
4.7
5,000,000
4.0
2.0
0
0.0
2000 1990 1980 1970 1960 1950 1940 1930 1920 1910 1900 1890 1880 1870 1860 1850
Here you see the information from the previous slide in graphic form. The number of foreign-born in
the United States increases steadily from the 1850s through the 1930s, reaching almost 15 million
persons by 1930. The number declines to about 10 million in 1970 and then begins to increase rapidly
through the year 2000. Remember that the total number of American citizens is growing steadily
becoming the 1850s and 2000 with a slight slowdown in the 1930s. This then explains the changing
percentage of foreign-born persons in the United States. Note that the percentage increases
dramatically from 9.7% in 1850 to 13.2% in 1860 and remains above 13% until 1940. Because of
restrictive immigration laws passed in the 1920s the percentage of foreign-born in the United States
declined steadily from 1920 until 1970 when it reached its historic low of 4.7%. The number and
percentage of foreign-born increases after 1970 but even after the enormous increases in immigration
in the 1990s the percentage of foreign-born in the United States in the year 2000 was only 11.1%, a level
last seen in the 1940s.
Slide 7
Year
1890
1910
1870
1900
1880
1920
1860
1930
2000
1850
1940
1990
1950
1980
1960
1970
Total
62,622,250
91,972,266
38,558,371
75,994,575
50,155,783
105,710,620
31,443,321
122,775,046
281,421,906
23,191,876
131,669,275
248,709,873
150,216,110
226,545,805
179,325,671
203,210,158
Native
53,372,703
78,456,380
32,991,142
65,653,299
43,475,840
91,789,928
27,304,624
108,570,897
250,314,017
20,947,274
120,074,379
228,942,557
139,868,715
212,465,899
169,587,580
193,590,856
Foreign
9,249,547
13,515,886
5,567,229
10,341,276
6,679,943
13,920,692
4,138,697
14,204,149
31,107,889
2,244,602
11,594,896
19,767,316
10,347,395
14,079,906
9,738,091
9,619,302
% Native
% Foreign
85.2
85.3
85.6
86.4
86.7
86.8
86.8
88.4
88.9
90.3
91.2
92.1
93.1
93.8
94.6
95.3
14.8
14.7
14.4
13.6
13.3
13.2
13.2
11.6
11.1
9.7
8.8
7.9
6.9
6.2
5.4
4.7
In this slide, the decades are arranged in terms of the highest percentage of foreign-born. 1890, 1910,
and 1870 are the years when America had the highest percentage of foreign-born among its citizens,
each decade with over 14% foreign-born. 1900, 1880, 1920, and 1860 are all gears in which the foreignborn constituted more than 13% of the population. In 1930, 11.6% of the population was foreign-born,
a slight decline from 1920; this was due to restrictive immigration laws passed in 1921 and 1924. Even
though immigration increased dramatically in the 1990s, by 2000 the United States was only 11.1%
foreign-born. This represented a steady increase in the percentage of foreign-born since 1970, when
the percentage was 4.7.
Slide 8
100%
90%
Immigration by
Region by Decade
80%
70%
Europe.
60%
50%
Asia.
40%
America (Can, Mex, Carib, SA)
30%
20%
10%
0%
Now that we have seen the overall impact of immigration on the United States, we need to look more
closely at the specific sources of immigration. Immigrants have not always come from the same places,
and the difference is in the origin of immigrants has had an important bearing on our sense of
community. This slide shows that between the 1820s and the 1950s Europe was by far the largest
source of immigration. Immigration from Europe peaks in the 1890s and declines through 1980s.
emigration from the Americas, mainly from Mexico, remains a relatively small percentage of
immigration until the 1910s when the Mexican Revolution pushed many Mexicans northward.
Immigration from Latin America especially constitutes over 50% of total immigration by the 1960s and
again in the 1990s. During the 1970s and 1980s, immigration from Asia also increases dramatically.
Slide 9
2,000,000
1,800,000
1,600,000
European
Immigration by
Decade
Austria-Hungary
Germany
1,400,000
Ireland
1,200,000
Italy.
Russia
1,000,000
United Kingdom
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
In the first slide for this lecture, I indicate that there are three big waves of immigration to the United
States. This slide illustrates two of those waves. The first wave of immigration came from northern and
western Europe. Here you can see the three main sources of this first wave: the orange line shows
immigration from Ireland; the light blue line shows immigration from the United Kingdom (England,
Scotland, Wales); and the dark blue line is from Germany. Immigration from Ireland is very high in the
1840s and 50s and then again in the 1880s, declining steadily thereafter. Immigration from England
rises steadily between the 1820s and the 1880s and declines thereafter. Immigration from Germany
increases dramatically in the 1840s and 1850s, reaching a new peak in the 1880s. It then speaks briefly
again during the 1920s and especially in the 1950s after which it declines. These changes can be linked
to political disruption and war in Germany. This wave of northern and western European immigration
declines after the 1880s. You can see that during that 1890s, immigration from the southern and
eastern Europe increases notably, and then quite dramatically during the next decade, far surpassing
immigration from northern and western Europe. This second wave of immigration was prompted by the
dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, industrial change, and political unrest, as well as the
persecution of ethnic minorities, especially Eastern European Jews. The Italians, Jews, and other eastern
European minorities in this second wave were seen as so unusual by many Americans, and so inclined
toward socialism, that restrictive immigration laws were passed in 1921 and again in 1924, thus bringing
a sharp close to this wave of immigration.
Slide 10
Latin American Immigration by Decade
1,200,000
1,000,000
Mexico
Caribbean.
Mexico, 1990s = 2,757,418
Cuba.
800,000
Haiti.
600,000
400,000
200,000
Dominican Republic.
Central America.
South America.
0
Immigration from Latin America follows a different course. Note that the largest source of immigration
from Latin America is from Mexico. You see a spike in Mexican immigration during the 1920s, a result of
the Mexican Revolution. During the 1950s, immigration from Mexico picks up again, jumping from
around 600,000 in the 1970s to about one million in the 1980s and then rocketing to almost 3 million in
the 1990s. Immigration from the Caribbean also increases dramatically after the 1960s. Immigration
from Cuba rises in the 60s and 70s but declines thereafter, while immigration from Central America has
been increasing since the 1970s.
Slide 11
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
Asian Immigration by Decade
China.
India.
Korea.
Philippines.
Vietnam.
Other Asia.
200,000
100,000
0
This third wave of immigration also included Asians. In this slide you can see that immigration from
China spiked during the 1870s. Much of this immigration was directed toward the west coast of the
United States. Chinese immigration was curtailed in 1882 when the United States Congress passed the
Chinese Exclusion Act, prompted by racial hatred of the Chinese that had been growing for several
decades. In 1943, this act was finally repealed. Immigration from China increased during the 1980s and
1990s, but immigration from Asia is more complex than just China. Note that there are dramatic
increase is in immigration from the Philippines Indiana Vietnam and other Asian countries after the
1960s. Note as well that there is an increase in immigration from Korea in the 1970s and 80s, although
that has declined in recent years. Many of these Asian immigrants came to the West Coast of the
United States, although some established Asian neighborhoods in major cities in the eastern United
States.
Slide 12
100%
Nativity of Foreign Born
90%
80%
70%
60%
Northern and Western Europe
50%
Southern and Eastern Europe
Asia
40%
Latin America
30%
20%
10%
0%
1990
1980
1970
1960
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1860
1850
This slide shows the composition of our foreign-born population. Note that about 90% of persons born
in other countries in the 1850s and 1860s came from northern and western Europe. That percentage
declines steadily between 1860 and the present. Immigration from southern and eastern Europe
resulted in an increasing proportion of immigrants from those countries from 1880 to 1930, after which
the percentage declines, although it remains slightly higher than the percentage of foreign-born citizens
from northern and western Europe. The percentage of persons born in Asia begins to increase in the
1930s and has reached almost 30% today. Nearly 50% of America's foreign-born today are from Latin
America.
Slide 13
100
Total
90
Native
Foreign Born
80
70
60
50
Percent Urban
40
30
1990 1980 1970 1960 1940 1930 1920 1910 1900 1890
The figures in early your slides might suggest that the influence of immigration on the United States has
been small; at most, fewer than 15% of Americans have been foreign-born, even during those decades
in which we witnessed the most immigration. However, immigrants have not distributed themselves
evenly throughout the United States. Their influence has been disproportionate on urban areas, as of
this slide shows. The blue line indicates the percentage of the population of the United States that has
lived in urban areas. In 1890 fewer than 40% of Americans lived in urban areas. That percentage
increases steadily to 1930, levels off briefly during the 1930s, and it increases again through the 1970s.
Today about three quarters of Americans live in urban areas, which includes suburbs. The green line
shows that throughout this entire period immigrants are much more likely to live in cities. Note that in
1890 almost two thirds of immigrants lived in cities, and that percentage increases to over 90% by 1990.
In other words, immigration has its greatest effects on cities.
Slide 14
Percent Foreign Born in Key Cities
1990 1980 1970 1960 1950 1940 1930 1920 1910 1900 1890 1880 1870 1860 1850
New York
City
28.4 23.6 18.2 20 23.6 28.7 34 36.1 40.8 37 42.2 39.7 44.5 47.2 45.7
Boston
20 15.5 13.1 15.8 18.6 23.9 29.9 32.4 36.3 35.1 35.3 31.6 35.1 35.9 34.1
Chicago
16.9 14.5 11.1 12.3 14.8 19.9 25.5 29.9 35.9 34.6 41 40.7 48.4 50 52.3
Milwaukee
4.7
5
Detroit
3.4
5.7
5.5
7.7
9.9 14.3 19.1 24.1 29.8 31.2 38.9 39.9 47.3
63.7
7.9 12.1 15.1 19.9 25.9 29.3 33.8 33.8 39.7 39.2 44.5
47.2
San Francisco 34 28.3 21.6 19.3 17.7 22.1 27.1 29.4 34.1 34.1 42.4 44.6 49.3 50.1
Los Angeles 38.4 27.1 14.6 12.6 13.4 15.1 20 21.2 20.7 19.5 25.3 28.7 35
Phoenix
Miami
8.6
5.7
3.7
4.4
7
6.6
14.3
16.9 34
59.7 53.7 41.8 16.9 12.1 9.7 12.4 25
Not all cities have been affected by immigration in the same way. Immigrants tend to be attracted to
larger cities because of the availability of jobs. In this chart you can see the effect of immigration on
these big cities. Recall that in 1850 fewer than 10% of Americans were immigrants. But in that same
year 46% of New Yorkers were immigrants, more than half of the city of Chicago and almost two thirds
of the city of Milwaukee were immigrants. You see in the case of New York City there is a gradual
decline in the percentage of foreign-born until 1970, when fewer than one in five New Yorkers were
born in other countries, but that percentage has increased in the last decades. However it has not
returned to levels seen in the 19th century. In the case of Chicago the decline is even more dramatic; by
1970 only about one in every 10 residents in the city of Chicago were foreign-born, although that
percentage has increased by about 50% in the last few decades. Most dramatic of all of course is
Milwaukee: today fewer than one in 20 residents of that city are immigrants. Los Angeles exhibits a
different pattern yet witnessed a decline in the percentage of foreign-born and in an increase; unlike
eastern and midwestern cities such as New York, Boston, Milwaukee, and Detroit, Los Angeles and San
Francisco, as Western cities, are recipients of the third wave of immigration from Asia and Latin
America. Miami exhibits yet another pattern. It witnesses and a sharp decline in its percentage of
foreign-born between 1920 and 1940 and in an extraordinary increase during the 1960s when
immigration from Cuba reshaped the city. Today, Miami has the highest percentage of foreign-born
residents of any major city in the United States.
Slide 15
60
Percent Foreign Born
50
New York City
40
Boston
Chicago
30
Milwaukee
Detroit
20
San Francisco
Los Angeles
10
Phoenix
Miami
0
Here you see the same information in graphic form. The overall trend is one of decline in the
percentage of foreign-born. However Western cities and large eastern cities see an increase in the
percentage of foreign-born after 1970. Miami, as can be seen from the pale green line, has an almost
unique pattern: a dramatic drop and then an extraordinary increase in the percentage of foreign-born.
Slide 16
Percent Foreign Born in Cities versus
Metropolitan Areas
Boston
Chicago
Detroit
Los Angeles
Miami
Milwaukee
New York City
Phoenix
San Francisco
City
20
16.9
3.4
38.4
59.7
4.7
28.4
8.6
34
Met Area
11.3
11.9
5.5
32.7
45.1
3.8
18.7
7.2
27.5
These figures, which are taken from the 2000 census, show that even within the cities the impact
of immigration has not been uniform. In each of these major cities, with the exception of
Detroit, immigrants are far more numerous in the central city as compared to the larger
metropolitan area. In other words, immigrants are much more likely to be found in the cities
rather than suburbs. This is not to say that immigrants do not go to suburbs, but the lower of jobs
and the proximity of jobs to housing has always been one of the main reasons that immigrants
have chosen cities.
Although it would be inaccurate to say that all immigrants to United States have had the same
experience, we can talk about some similarities that cut across a wide variety of groups.
Immigrants are both pushed and pulled to come to the United States. They are often pushed by
political unrest, economic change, religious and ethnic persecution, and war. They are often
pulled by family relationships (a relative who already resides in the United States), the prospect
of more political or religious freedom, and most often of all the prospect of economic
improvement. So, while there are exceptions to this, it is nonetheless true that immigrants
generally arrive in the US as a very poor group of people; they need assistance, though this does
not mean that they get it, at least not from the government. It also creates the impression that
they are needy and may be taking more resources than they bring.
Once they arrive in the United States, immigrants tend to stick together. During the 19th
century, and in many cases today, immigrants created vast ethnic neighborhoods in American
cities. In these neighborhoods, immigrants could partially re-create the cultural conditions which
they left in their home countries: with the same food, the same language, the same institutions.
These working-class immigrant neighborhoods could be quite stable, though new immigrants
sometimes creating tensions within them. Though these neighborhoods provided refuge for
newcomers and a familiar community for new residents, most immigrants had to pursue a living
outside of their own neighborhoods, which meant that they had to interact with other immigrants
and with native-born Americans. In spite of this mixing, immigrants have also practiced mutual
avoidance: they create their own neighborhoods but tend to stay away from other immigrant
groups. This meant that American cities tended to be patchworks of ethnic neighborhoods,
interspersed with neighborhoods of native-born Americans. Living conditions in ethnic
neighborhoods, or any neighborhood of poor people in the United States, could sometimes be
very bad, with unpaved streets and ramshackle housing. This meant that, typically, immigrants
were seen as strangers who lived in their own neighborhoods that made them seem even more
unusual to native-born Americans and other ethnic groups. While there has been “melting” after
a period of time, eras of intense immigration have often resulted in an increasing awareness of
differences.
In sum, immigrants have had a profound effect on cities. Especially during times when levels of
immigration were very high, they were often seen as poor, strange, and threatening, even as they
added to the cultural richness of cities. Those differences show up in other areas of urban life,
especially politics, where the problem of distributing resources is felt most acutely.