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Chapter 4: Communicating Verbally
Chapter Goals




Understand the nature of verbal symbols and their relationship to language and meaning.
Identify how factors such as culture, gender, generation, and context affect verbal
symbols.
Explain the ways in which verbal symbols may be used positively and negatively.
Demonstrate skill and sensitivity in using verbal communication.
Outline
I. Understanding verbal symbols
A. Language is the ability to transmit thoughts from the mind of one
individual to another through the process of encoding.
1. Encoding refers to the process of putting thoughts and feelings into verbal
symbols (words) and/or nonverbal messages
2. The language system works by using words and grammar, or the rules that
dictate the structure of language, to encode our thoughts and emotions into
verbal messages others can understand.
3. verbal symbols work to form the building blocks of
interpersonal communication.
II. Attributes of Verbal Symbol
A. Words are symbolic.
1. Symbols are arbitrary, mutually agreed upon labels or representations for
feelings, concepts, objects, or events.
2. The word is not the thing but merely a symbol we have agreed to use to stand
for it.
3. Usually, a group of speakers (or a culture) record an agreement about verbal
symbols in a dictionary that catalogs the meanings attached to each verbal
symbol.
B. Language evolves.
1. In the English language, as time passes, some words fall out of favor and
cease to be used, the meaning of some words changes, and new words are added
to the lexicon.
2. Language is susceptible to fads and fashions.
3. New words reveal a great deal about our society.
4. The term lexical gap is used to refer to experiences that are not named.
5. People whose experiences are not well-represented in verbal symbols are
called muted groups (Kramarae, 1981), meaning that they have trouble
articulating their thoughts and feelings verbally because their language doesn’t
give them adequate vocabulary.
III. Words are powerful.
A. When we use words to label something we’ve experienced, we make the
experience important by talking about it.
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B. When we can’t find a word to name our experience, it may make the experience
seem unimportant or trivial.
IV. Meanings for verbal symbols may be denotative or connotative.
A. Denotative meaning refers to the literal, conventional meaning that most people
in a culture have agreed is the meaning of a symbol.
B. Connotative meaning varies from person to person, and derives from people’s
personal and subjective experience with a verbal symbol.
V. Words vary in level of abstraction.
A. If a word is concrete, you are able to detect its referent (the thing the word
represents) with one of your senses.
1. Concrete words are those that you can see, smell, taste, touch, or hear.
2. The more a word restricts the number of possible referents, the more concrete
the word is.
VI. Factors affecting verbal symbols.
A. Culture and ethnicity – culture affects language (and vice versa) because most
cultures develop their own language.
1. An idiom is a word or phrase that has an understood meaning within a
culture, but that meaning is not derived by exact translation.
2. Phatic communication consists of words and phrases that are used for
interpersonal contact only and are not meant to be translated.
B. Theories
1.Symbolic interactionism explains how words relate to culture.
2.Linguistic determinism argues that words determine our ability to perceive
and think.
3.Linguistic relativity (Whorf, 1956) states that language influences our
thinking but doesn’t determine it.
a. Both linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity point to the
connection among culture, language, and thought, and are sometimes
referred together as the strong and weak forms of the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis.
b. Codability refers to the ease with which a language can express a
thought.
C. Gender
1. Although gender and its affect on language has been studied a great deal,
there is no definitive conclusion because the outcomes are contradictory.
2. Some research (Maltz & Borker, 1982) looked at the different ways boys and
girls talk during play and concluded that girls learned negotiation and
cooperation and boys learned assertive communication behaviors.
3. Daniel Maltz and Ruth Borker’s beliefs came to be known as the two culture
theory.
4. Much of Deborah Tannen’s gender-related research stems from the two
culture theory.
5. In an analysis of more than 1200 research studies, researchers found that the
differences in communication behavior attributable to gender totaled only
around 1 percent (Canary & Hause, 1993).
D. Generation
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1. One task of each generation is to distinguish itself from the generation that
came before it.
2. This differentiation is achieved in part through language.
3. Technological changes may affect language across generations as well.
E. Context
1. Contextual cues subsume all the other elements the text discusses because the
culture, gender, ethnicity, and generation of the people who are interacting,
factor into the context.
2. In this section, the authors briefly address the following contextual cues:
situation, time, relationship, and nonverbal cues.
a. Even when words remain the same, situations can create a different
sense of the meaning of the statement.
b. As mentioned earlier, the meaning of words can change over time.
c. Relationships between speakers also contribute to the contextual cues
that affect meaning.
d. The nonverbal part of the context is powerful and persuasive in
helping people make sense of verbal codes.
VII. The Dark Side of Verbal Symbols.
A. Sexist language is language that is demeaning to one sex.
B. Racist language is language that demeans those of a particular ethnicity.
C. Homophobic language is using homosexual-related words to describe something
as bad or negative.
D. Language reflects static evaluation when it obscures change.
E. Polarization occurs when people utilize the either-or aspect of language and
speak of the world in extremes.
F. Reification is the tendency to respond to words, or labels for things, rather than
the things themselves.
VIII. The Bright Side of Verbal Codes.
A. Through language we can express confirmation, or the acknowledgement and
support of another.
B. Disconfirmation, in contrast, occurs when someone feels ignored and
disregarded.
C. Ambiguity in Verbal Codes
1.Ambiguity may be unintentional or strategic.
2.Strategic ambiguity, from organizational communication (Eisenberg, 1984),
originally referred to people in organizations as not always wanting others to
completely understand their intentions.
3.Equivocation is a type of ambiguity that involves choosing your words
carefully to give a listener a false impression without actually lying.
IX. Choices for Improving Verbal Communication.
A. Cultivate an attitude of respect for others by perspective-taking, which means
acknowledging the viewpoints of those with whom you interact
B. Owning and using I – messages
C. Understanding the ladder of abstraction
D. Indexing - which means acknowledging the time frame of your judgments of
others and yourself
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E. Probing the middle ground
Terms for Review
Abstract
codability
code-switching
concrete
confirmation
connotative meaning
denotative meaning
disconfirmation
Ebonics
encoding
equivocation
generic he
grammar
I-messages
idiom
indexing
language
lexical gaps
linguistic determinism
linguistic relativity
man-linked words
muted groups
owning
perspective-taking
phatic communication
polarization
process of abstraction
referent
reification
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
sexist-language
static evaluation
strategic ambiguity
verbal symbols
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Student Activities
1. Directions: Read the following sentences one at a time. Before reading the next sentence,
take sixty seconds to generate a list of as many substitutions as possible for the italicized
word. These substitutions should represent shading, colorations, or nuances that modify the
meaning of the sentence. For example, the sentence “He is cheap” could become “He is
thrifty,” “He is stingy,” or “He is a miser.” Compare your results with another student. (This
exercise taken from Gamble & Gamble, 2002).
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Della is thin.
Martin is fat.
Bernard is smart.
Louisa is firm.
Lily is tired.
F. Sonya is good-looking.
G. Kendra is rich.
H. Tom is old.
I. Javier is cheap
J. Simon is frugal.
2. Directions: Write your first or last name spelled backwards. Come up with a definition for
the made-up word. Use it in a sentence. Ask a classmate a question using the new word. Was
she or he able to understand what you were asking? Did the context help convey the
meaning? Did you use more nonverbals to communicate your message?
3. Directions: For each of the statements below, write 2 distinct ways it might be interpreted.
This exercise will provide you with concrete examples of ambiguous verbal symbols.(This
exercise taken from North & Wood, 2006).
A. That is one bad woman.
Interpretation 1:_______________________________________________________
Interpretation 2:_______________________________________________________
B. Do you have any grass?
Interpretation 1:_______________________________________________________
Interpretation 2:_______________________________________________________
C. Are you straight?
Interpretation 1:_______________________________________________________
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Interpretation 2:_______________________________________________________
D. This is very heavy.
Interpretation 1:_______________________________________________________
Interpretation 2:_______________________________________________________
E. You are hot.
Interpretation 1:_______________________________________________________
Interpretation 2:_______________________________________________________
F. I don’t want you to hit on me.
Interpretation 1:_______________________________________________________
Interpretation 2:_______________________________________________________
4. Directions: Rewrite each sentence to eliminate any racism or sexism.
A. I don’t know this doctor but I’m sure he knows what he’s doing.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
B. I called to make an appointment and a black woman answered the phone.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
C. The Hispanic girl who cuts and colors my hair is excellent.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
D. I missed when the minister introduced them as man and wife.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
E. Did you call a policeman?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Interactive Activities
4.1: Linguistics
http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-faqs.cfm
For more information on the study of linguistics, take a look at the website of the Linguistic
Society of America. Pay close attention to the section titled Language as a Formal System. Here
grammar and the concepts of semantics and pragmatics are discussed.
Talk to someone whose native language is something other than English.
Discuss with him or her some of the rules of English language, such as sounds, meaning, and
structure and how these rules differ from those of his or her native language.
Summary: The Linguistic Society of America website provides background information on
linguistics, or the study of speech and language.
4.2: Politically Correct Language
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_correctness
For the definition, history, usage, and controversy of political correctness and its effects on
language, check out the entry for “political correctness” at the online encyclopedia Wikipedia.
1. What are your thoughts on the controversial issue of political correctness?
2. Are we too sensitive about correctness? Explain your answer.
Summary: The entry for “political correctness” at the online encyclopedia Wikipedia provides
some background on political correctness and can also be used to further explain the SapirWhorf hypothesis.
4.3: The Power of Words
http://dispatch.fandm.edu/read.php?id=372
Because words can be powerful, word choice often becomes an issue for journalists. Can the
selection of one word over another impact the effect of a message? Take a look at the editorial
“The Definition of Terror” on the use (or avoidance) of the words terrorist and suicide.
1. What other words could be defined as “powerful?”
2. Write down some of these words and compare them with those of a classmate. Are they
context-appropriate? That is, in what instances would you use them for effect, and in what
instances would you avoid using them?
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Summary: This article in the Franklin and Marshall College College Dispatch discusses the
media’s use of the terms terrorist and suicide bomber and how each of these terms affects the
impact of a message.

Emotion is created and spreads through body.

The mind experiences a feeling based on the change in the body.
4.4: Gender-Free Language
http://a4esl.org/q/h/dt/genderfree.html
Test your skills at replacing gender-based language with gender-neutral language by taking the
Gender-Free Language Quiz. Resist the temptation to look at the answer for each exercise until
you have thought of a gender-neutral substitution for the given word.
Summary: Test your skills at replacing gender-based language with gender-neutral language by
taking the Gender-Free Language Quiz.
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InfoTrac College Edition Activities
4.1: Moving Up and Down the Ladder of Abstraction
“The Ladder of Abstraction” by Jack Hart
Editor & Publisher, October 1994
Most effective speakers or writers will move up and down the ladder of abstraction to create
impact depending on the context. The article “The Ladder of Abstraction” by Jack Hart discusses
how most writers write somewhere in the middle of the ladder of abstraction.
1. Take a look at the three examples of abstract versus concrete writing.
2. Notice the difference between the article about the truck driver, the soldier, and the drug
addict.
3. Where would you place each of these examples on the ladder of abstraction?
Summary: This article uses the concept of the ladder of abstraction to suggest that writers and
journalists write somewhere around the middle of the abstraction ladder, rarely moving up
toward deeper meaning or down toward stirring emotion.
4.2: Ebonics: Opposing Viewpoints
“Q: Would Ebonics Programs in Public Schools Be a Good Idea?” by Keith Gilyard and
Nicholas Stix
Insight on the News, March 1997
In 1996 the Oakland, California, school board’s decision to recognize Ebonics was quite
controversial. To better understand both sides of this issue, take a look at the article “Q: Would
Ebonics Programs in Public Schools Be a Good Idea?” by Keith Gilyard and Nicholas Stix.
1. What are your thoughts about the ideas raised in the article?
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2. Do you think Ebonics is an acceptable form of English or a second language? Explain your
answer.
3. Do you think Ebonics assists students to better understand their culture or does it provide a
disservice to students? Explain your answer.
Summary: This article provides opposing viewpoints on the subject of Ebonics as it pertains to
student learning and funding for bilingual programs in schools.
4.3: The Ties between Language and Culture
“Vermont Area Struggles to Keep Welsh Culture Alive” by Anne Wallace Allen
Capper's, February 2003
Take a look at the brief article “Vermont Area Struggles to Keep Welsh Culture Alive” by Anne
Wallace Allen, about a fading culture and language right here in the United States. As you read
the article, notice the connection between language and culture and how the fading of the
language influenced the fading of the culture.
1. Think about this: If you restore the language, will you restore the culture?
2. What other cultures have become extinct? Has your own? Do you think people lose a sense
of self if they don’t have a strong connection to a culture?
Summary: This article discusses an example of the connection between culture and language.
The author describes the passing of generations and its effects on the Welsh language and culture
in Vermont.
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4.4: How Words Come to Be
“How New Words Come to Be: They Travel from Abroad and Migrate from the Lab.
Sometimes, Old Words Get New Meanings; Other New Ones Are Just Made Up!”
The Christian Science Monitor, July 2002
Ever wonder how new words develop? This interesting article, “How New Words Come to Be,”
offers a variety of answers to that very question. To get a sense of how words change from one
generation to the next, complete the following exercise:
1. With a partner, make a list of “old” words that you know but hardly ever use or hear.
2. Now make a list of “new” words that you use but that might be unclear to your parents or
grandparents.
Summary: This article from The Christian Science Monitor discusses the many ways that words
are created and provides an interesting history of the Oxford English Dictionary.
4.5: Sexist Language in the Workplace
“Benefiting from Nonsexist Language in the Workplace” by Bill Daily and Miriam Finch
Business Horizons, March-April 1993
In the workplace, job titles and common business words and phrases could be considered sexist.
The article “Benefiting from Nonsexist Language in the Workplace” by Bill Daily and Miriam
Finch discusses the many ways in which sexist language is used at work.
1. Can you think of any job titles or duties that might be considered sexist?
2. Now can you change the words used for those titles or duties to create a gender-neutral
alternative?
Summary: This article focuses on sexist language commonly used in the workplace, suggesting
that we should take a second look at job and courtesy titles, as well as gender-specific pronouns.
The article also discusses the benefits of promoting nonsexist language in the workplace.
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Your Turn Journal Activity
Record how often you or your friends use language that might be considered “dark.” For a week
keep track of this. Also note relatives’ use of “dark” language. Maybe your mom called you her
baby or your friend describes a professor in a polarizing way. Include any terms that are sexist or
limiting in some way. Have you ever thought about this before? Does it make a difference as to
how we interact with or think about other people?
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Quiz
True or False
1. New words have little to do with current events and social trends (p. 121).
True or False
2. Language is flexible and people can coin words to fill lexical gaps that muted groups
experience (p. 139).
True or False
3. Everyone has different denotative meanings for words (p. 123).
True or False
4. A word with fewer restrictions is more abstract (p. 124).
True or False
5. Some referents are by their nature somewhat abstract (p. 125).
True or False
6. An idiom is easy to translate from one language to another (p. 128).
True or False
7. Phatic communication can be thought of as content-free (p. 128).
True or False
8. In a household that is bilingual it would be unusual to practice code-switching (p.130).
True or False
9. Codability refers to the ease with which a language can express a thought (p. 132).
True or False
10. Much of the research on men and women’s communication has reached similar conclusions
(p. 133).
True or False
11. By agreeing on symbols, we can engage in communication with one other about things (p.
118).
True or False
12. Connotative meaning varies very little (p. 124).
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True or False
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is NOT a contextual cue discussed in your text? (p. 136)
A. emotion
B. situation
C. time
D. relationship
2. When Peggy got home from class, she told Dan, “That was the worst class ever! Professor
Kharas was completely sarcastic and she didn’t know a thing about the scheduled topic.” Peggy
might be justified in disliking the professor, however, she is guilty of what aspect of language
that sees things only in extremes? (p. 138)
A. static evaluation
B. polarization
C. reification
D. indexing
3. Whitney tells Darla that she doesn’t have to agree with her in order to acknowledge or support
her. What is Whitney looking for Darla to express? (p. 144)
A. contemplation
B. concern
C. disconfirmation
D. confirmation
4. According to Eisenberg (1984), in order to promote harmony in an organization, leaders must
be abstract enough to allow for interpretations while simultaneously encouraging agreement.
What term describes this? (p. 126)
A. static evaluation
B. abstract thinking
C. strategic ambiguity
D. thoughtful abstraction
5. Jeff knew that if he didn’t want to give the impression that Rebecca was always selfish, he
could acknowledge the time frame around of his judgment. What is this practice called? (p. 146)
A. static evaluation
B. perspective-taking
C. indexing
D. owning
6. Bethany wants to improve her verbal effectiveness. Which of the following should she avoid?
(p. 144)
A. Using disconfirmation.
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B. Probing the middle ground.
C. Understanding the ladder of abstraction.
D. Using I-messages.
7. Although some people disparage this practice with the label political correctness, they are
actually referring to changes in the lexicon prompted by: (p. 119)
A. classism.
B. social disregard.
C. social changes.
D. activists.
8. Lexical gaps is a term used to refer to: (p. 139)
A. pauses in speaking.
B. experiences that are not named.
C. forgetting a word or phrase.
D. nonfluent speech.
9. If a word is _____________, you are able to detect its ________________. (p. 124)
A. complex, recognition
B. consistent, referent
C. concrete, referent
D. concrete, recognition
10. Which of the following states that language influences our thinking, but doesn’t
determine it? (p. 131)
A. linguistic relativity
B. linguistic determinism
C. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
D. social interactionism
11. The type of ambiguity that involves choosing your words carefully to give a listener a false
impression without actually lying is known as: (p. 126)
A. avoidance
B. equivocation
C. egalitarianism
D. astuteness
12. When Axel first arrived in the United States from Germany, he thought he knew English
fluently. However, he sometimes ran into difficulty when Americans used words or phrases that
don’t translate precisely. These type of words or phrases are called: (p. 127)
A. idiocentric
B. isometrics
C. idioms
D. idolatries
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13. Keisha was amazed by how easily Maria and her family shifted back and forth between
Spanish and English in the same conversation. This is an example of: (p. 130)
A. decoding
B. encoding
C. code-breaking
D. code-switching
14. The ease with which a language can express a thought is referred to as: (p. 132)
A. codability
B. code-breaking
C. code-ease
D. decoding
15. When you call someone or something by an extreme label, this term suggests that is how you
will respond to that person or thing: (p. 139)
A. reification
B. renegotiation
C. regression
D. refraction
Essay Questions
1. Do you agree with Deborah Tannen (1995) when she argues that women prefer “rapport” talk,
or talking for pleasure, while men prefer “report” talk, or talk that accomplishes a task? Why or
why not? Be sure and include examples in your answer.
2. Using at least 3 different cues, explain how the phrase, “I love you,” has different meanings
depending on contextual cues.
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3. Draw and explain the parts of The Triangle of Meaning.
4. Do you feel differently based on the label someone uses to describe you (for example, student,
athlete, good-looking, stupid, weird, etc.)? Relate your answer to the power of words.
5. How has your family and/or culture affected the verbal symbols you use? Describe one or two
examples.
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Answers to Quiz
True of False
1. False
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. True
6. False
7. True
8. False
9. True
10. False
11. True
12. False
Multiple Choice Questions
1. A
2. B
1. D
2. C
3. C
4. A
5. C
6. B
7. C
8. A
9. B
10. C
11. D
12. A
13. A