Tapeworm Infestation
Cestodes are generally flat, segmented and ribbon-like worms, and are commonly known as tapeworms. They have no
mouth or digestive system and so absorb nutrients across the body wall (cuticle).
All members of this class are parasitic.
Characteristics of Cestodes (Tape worm)
 A chain of reproductive units called strobilla with scolex (hold fast organ) attached to the intestinal wall
 Scolex has suckers and rostellum. Scolex is armed (with hooks) or unarmed (without hooks)
 No organs of prehension or digestion. Nutrients absorbed through specialised integument (body wall / skin)
 Flat shape affords maximum absorption of nutrients
 Taenia saginata (human tapeworm: contain about 2,000 segments and is around 3.6 metre long); Echincoccus
granulosus ( just about 2 to 8mmlength)
 Both sexes in the same individual
 Some segments have uterine pore for escape of eggs
 Those without the pores, segments detach when they become mature ( gravid)
 Either eggs or the segments are found in the faeces ( starts appearing in faeces six
 to eight weeks after ingestion of cysticercus
 Require intermediate hosts to complete lifecycle
 Produce eggs
 1st stage larva called as oncosphere containing hexacanth embryo
 2nd stage larvae (cysticercoid) fluid filled bladder with one or more scolices (bladder worm)
The body is divided into the scolex, neck and
proglottids
o
The scolex (head): The scolex is usually modified
with hooks and/or suckers which fasten to the host gut
wall and provide an anchor to prevent removal of the
worm by host bowel activity.
o
The neck: The neck is an unsegmented region of high
regenerative capacity. If treatment fails to eliminate
the neck and scolex, the entire worm may regenerate.
o Proglottids (segments): The body is divided into
sections called proglottids. Proglottids closest to the
neck are undifferentiated. As proglottids move
caudally, each develops hermaphroditic sex organs.
Distal proglottids are gravid and contain eggs in a
uterus. The mature proglottids, gravid with eggs,
detach and are voided with the host feces.
Different segments of tapeworm
Life cycle
The life cycle is often complex and involves intermediate hosts. All cestodes cycle pass through 3 stages—eggs, larvae,
and adults. Adults inhabit the intestines of definitive hosts, mammalian carnivores. Several of the adult tapeworms that
infect humans are named after their intermediate host:
The fish tapeworm (Diphyllobothrium latum),
 The beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata), and
 The pork tapeworm (Taenia solium).
Eggs are excreted with faeces into the environment and ingested by an intermediate host (typically another species) in
which larvae develop, enter the circulation, and encyst in the musculature or other organs. When the intermediate host
is eaten, cysts develop into adult tapeworms in the intestines of the definitive host, restarting the cycle. With some
cestode species (e.g., T. solium), the definitive host can also serve as an intermediate host and develop tissue cysts
instead of intestinal worms if eggs are ingested.
Life Cycle of Tapeworm
Pathogenicity
Although adult tapeworms do cause disease, it is the cystic forms in intermediate hosts that are of great overall
veterinary and public health importance. These can cause severe and even lethal disease, most importantly in the brain,
but also in the liver, lungs, eyes, muscles, and subcutaneous tissues.
In humans, T. solium causes cysticercosis, and Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis cause hydatid disease.
Sparganum mansoni and T. multiceps larvae also can infect humans
Thus, some species live in the intestines of dogs and cause no detectable harm to them, but can grow into footballsized cysts in the liver and lungs of other hosts as humans who are unfortunate enough to ingest the eggs. Ingestion of
cysts in meat and fish can also cause disease in humans, ranging from the benign to the life-threatening depending on
the tapeworm species involved.
Adult tapeworms in the intestine have also been associated with intestinal upsets and anaemia in humans, and colic in
horses.
Symptoms, Signs, and Diagnosis
Adult tapeworms are so well adapted to their hosts that they cause minimal symptoms. Larvae, however, may elicit
intense immunologic reactions as they travel through tissues (hence inducing immunity) and cause severe disease when
they settle in extra-intestinal sites.
Adult tapeworm infections are diagnosed by identifying eggs or gravid proglottid segments in stool. Larval disease is
best identified by imaging studies, such as brain CT scan or MRI scan, and for some species, serologic tests.
Treatment and Prevention
The anthelmintic agents, praziquantel and niclosamide, are effective for most intestinal tapeworm infections.
Praziquantel @ 1 mg/kg BW in horses
@ 3.75 mg/kg in sheep
@ 5 mg/ kg in dogs and cats
Niclosamide @
Some extra intestinal infections respond to anthelmintic treatment, whereas others require surgical intervention.
Prevention and control
 Thorough cooking (to temperature > 57° C [> 135° F]) of pork, beef, lamb, game meat, and fish;
 Regular worming of dogs and cats;
 Preventing recycling through hosts, such as dogs eating dead carcasses reduction and avoidance of intermediate
hosts such as rodents, fleas, and grain beetles;



Meat inspection; and
Sanitary treatment of human waste
Prolonged freezing of meat is effective, pickling is variably effective, and smoking and drying are ineffective.
Families:
1. Taeniidae: Taenia solium (cysticercus) ,T.saginata, T.ovis, T.multiceps (coenurus), T.hydatigena, Echinococcus
granulosus (hydatid)
2. Dipylididae: D.caninum
3. Anoplocephalidae: Moniezia expansa, M.benedeni
Genus: Diphylobothrium: Species - D.latum (infection in man from fish)
Genus: Spirometra: Species – S.mansonoides (definitive host cats)
Taenia solium
This parasite has a cosmopolitan distribution, with estimates of approximately 50 million cases of infection world-wide
annually. This parasite has pigs as the main intermediate host, but man may also act as an intermediate host for this
parasite as well as being infected with the adult tapeworms.
Larvae - These small cysticerci (referred to as Cysticercus cellulosae) found in the muscles or subcutaneous tissues
(the normal sites for the larval of this parasite) may be found in other tissues such as central nervous system where they
may grow much larger, up to several cm in diameter.
Adults - The adult tapeworms have an average length of ~ 3 meters, but may grow up to 8 meters in length
occasionally. The scolex is equipped with a low rostellum with a double crown of approximately 30 hooks.
Life cycle
Pathology of Infection
Larvae - the annual world-wide mortality due to cysticercosis has been estimated at approximately 50 000 cases.
Cysticerci mainly develop in the subcutaneous tissues, infections in both the CNS and ocular tissues also very common.
Ocular infection can cause discomfort and can later bring about detachment of the retina.
Diagnosis
Pigs usually do not show signs of infection. Cysticerci infection (commonly referred to as measly pork or pork
measles) is usually only found when the meat is inspected.
Treatment
Praziquantel
Niclosamide
Control
Food, water or soil may become contaminated with tapeworm eggs from human feces. Prevent exposure by:
-cooking pork thoroughly (56°C)
-washing hands frequently when preparing food
-using clean utensils to prevent cross-contamination during food processing
-inspection of beef/pork for cysticerci
-Freezing at -10°C for 10 days
Taenia multiceps, The Coenurus Tapeworm
The adult worm is found in dogs or wild canids.
The larva is a bladderworm with multiple scoleces, called a coenurus.
The usual intermediate host is the sheep.
Treatment is chiefly surgical, although the drugs used for cysticercosis may also be effective against coenurus
infection
Echinococcus granulosus
Echinococcosis (hydatid disease) can develop in any tissue site, including the liver, lungs, heart, brain, kidneys, and
long bones.
The clinical manifestations depend on the site and size of the cyst, but resemble those of a slow-growing tumor that
causes gradually increasing pressure.
Dipylidium caninum
Infection of dogs and cats
Fleas are the intermediate hosts
Diphyllobothrium latum (The broad fish tapeworm)
Infection with Diphyllobothrium latum is usually asymptomatic, although occasional diarrhea, abdominal pain, fatigue,
vomiting, dizziness, or numbness of fingers and toes may be present. Eosinophilia develops during the early stages of
worm growth
Tapeworm of cattle and other ruminants
Monezia (Monezia expansa and M.benedini)
The adult tapeworms are about 600 cm long with no rostellum and hooks. Eggs of M.expansa are triangular-shaped
while that of M.benedini square- shaped
Definitive host: Ruminants Intermediate host: Orbatid mites. The larva stage is called as cysticercoid.
Clinical signs
Highly pathogenic in young animals, especially lambs
 Stunted growth
 Decreased weight gain
 Anaemia
 Obstruction of small intestine
 Diarrhoea
Diagnosis
Fecal sample examination
Treatment
Praziquantel @ 15 mg/kg
Albendazole @ 10 mg/kg
Prevention
Control mites in pasture by ploughing
Other parasites of ruminants
Avitallina lahorea: DH: sheep and other ruminants (Small intestine)
IH: Lice
Stilezia hepatica: DH: Ruminants (bile ducts)
Thysamosoma actinoides: DH: Ruminants (Bile ducts, small intestine, pancreatic duct)
IH: lice
Tapeworm of equines
Anaplocephala perfoliata: DH: equines (Large and small intestines)
A.magna: DH: equines (stomach and small intestine)
IH: Orbatid mites
Pathogenesis and clinical signs
Large number of parasites in intestine resuslts in weakness, cachexia, anaemia. Heavy infestation can lead to death of
the animal.
Tapeworm of birds
Davainea proglottina: found in the duodenum of birds
They are armed with hammer-shaped hooks
IH: Molluscs
Rallietina tetragona: found in the small intestine of birds. IH: ants
R.echinobothrida: small intestine of chikens and turkeys IH: ants
Cotugnia diagnophora: Small intestine of birds
Amoebotaenia sphenoides: small intestine of fowls. Rose-thorn shaped hooks
IH: earthworms
Pathogenesis of tapeworms in birds
R.echinobothrida causes nodule formation at the site of attachment severe enteritis
D.proglottina bury deep in the intestinal villi haemorrhage, necrosis and desesntry
Clinical signs
 Retarded growth in young and reduced production in adults
 Loss of condition, emaciation, anaemia
 Partial or complete paralysis
Diagnosis
Gravid segments in feces, clinical signs and postmortem examination
Treatment
Niclosamide @ 22 mg/kg
Albendazole, Oxybendazole and praziquantel
Control
 The control measures are directed at the control of intermediate hosts. Insecticides can be used for the control of
intermediate hosts.
 Regular deworming of birds