Grammatical Functions and Categories
29
(6) We disposed of the problem.
the word dispose remains morphologically a verb, carrying the inflection for tense, but
the sequence dispose of also functions as a single unit in semantic and syntactic terms:
(6) a. [We]NP/S [disposed]V/P [of the problem]PP.
b.[We]NP/S [disposed of]V/P [the problem]NP/Od.
c. [The problem]NP/S [was disposed of]VP
The words that follow the lexical verb in expressions like those in (1-3) are
morphologically invariable. They may be given a neutral functional designation
PARTICLE. It will be shown later that they belong to two distinct but overlapping
categories: prepositions and spatial adverbs (though the latter need not be used only
with spatial meanings). Some such particles are:
(7)
a. against, among, as, at, beside, for, from, into, like, of, onto, upon, with, etc.
b. about, above, across, after, along, around, by, down, in, off, on, at, out, over,
past, round, through, under, up <AmE>, etc.
c. aback, ahead, apart, aside, astray, away, back, forward, home, in front, on
top, out <BrE>, together, etc.
The items in (7) a. are prepositions only, those in (7) c. are spatial adverbs only (unless
they form a part of a complex preposition), and those in (7) b. can be either prepositions
or spatial adverbs. The most obvious difference between them is that prepositions
require an NP as a prepositional complement to follow, whereas there is no such
requirement for adverbs. Only items from (7) b. are acceptable in both constructions:
Construction
Prepositional
(8)
a. The fierce dog charged at me.
b. Jack fell down the hill.
c. *We must look ahead the future.
Adverbial
*The fierce dog charged at.
Jack fell down.
We must look ahead.
In (8) a. above the preposition cannot stand alone, and the adverb in (8) c. cannot take
an NP as a complement.
Prepositional verbs are complex verbs consisting of the basic verb followed by a
preposition, i.e. by items from (7) a. or b.), phrasal verbs are units consisting of a basic
verb followed by adverbs, i.e. items from (7) b. or c., while phrasal-prepositional verbs
consist of a basic verb followed by an adverb and a preposition.
30
Part 2: Verbs: Their forms and types
2.T.2. Strong vs. weak verbs
The strong verbs are generally characterized by the internal change of the vowel in
the formation of the past tense, and by the addition of a suffix (-en, -n, or –ne) in the
formation of the past participle, which may be accompanied by a change of the inside
vowel but need not. Formerly all the verbs of this class formed their participle with the
above suffixes, but many have meanwhile discarded the suffix. This accounts for two
large groups:
(9)
i. Strong verbs retaining the suffix:
arise – arose – arisen
blow – blew – blown
steal – stole – stolen
ii. Strong verbs which have lost the suffix:
become – became – become
fling – flung – flung
swim – swam - swum
The class of weak verbs comprises all the regular verbs and some irregular verbs.
Verbs of the weak conjugation add a dental suffix for the past tense, which may be
accompanied by various changes of the inside vowel (e.g. shortening a long vowel). The
past participle is identical to the past tense. There is also a mixed class strong-weak
verbs The dental suffix may be phonologically realized as [t], [d] or [Id]. The suffix may
be “invisible”. Cf. Some examples of irregular weak verbs:
(10) creep – crept – crept
sweep – swept – swept
(11) bring – brought – brought
catch – caught – caught
(12) burst – burst – burst
set – set – set
(13) bend – bent – bent
spend – spent – spent
(14) bleed – bled – bled
meet – met - met
Grammatical Functions and Categories
31
2.T.3. Arrangement of irregular verbs according to the degree of similarity
between the base, the past tense and the past participle
The groupings of irregular verbs in the following list is based on the degree of the
allomorphic similarity of the base with the past tense and the past participle. In most
cases where a regular form exists side by side with the irregular one a capital R is
placed after the irregular form in the list. The verbs are arranged within groups
according to their phonological makeup, i.e. according to the vowel and the final
consonant (or consonant cluster).
l.
2.
base
=
past tense
=
past participle
hit
knit
quit
slit
split
hit
knit, R
quit, R1
slit
split
hit
knit, R
quit, R1
slit
split
burst
cast
cost
thrust
burst
cast
cost
thrust
burst
cast
cost
thrust
bet
let
set
bet, R
let
set
bet, R
let
set
shed
shred
spread
shed
shred, R
spread
shed
shred, R
spread
bid
rid
bid
rid, R
bid
rid
cut
shut
cut
shut
cut
shut
hurt
hurt
hurt
put
put
put
base
beat
=
past tense
beat
+ -∂n =
beaten
past participle
32
Part 2: Verbs: Their forms and types
3.
base change
of vowel
past tense
=
past participle
cling
fling
sling
sting
string
swing
wring
clung
flung
slung
stung
strung
swung
wrung
clung
flung
slung
stung
strung
swung
wrung
bind
find
grind
wind
bound
found
ground
wound
bound
found
ground
wound
bleed
breed
feed
speed
bled
bred
fed
sped, R
bled
bred
fed
sped, R
lead
read
led
read
led
read
spin
win
spun
won
spun
won
sit
spit
sat
spat
sat
spat
(a)wake
(a)woke, R
(a)woke, R
(be)hold
(be)held
(be)held
dig
dug
dug
fight
fought
fought
get
got
got
hang
hung, R
hung, R
heave
hove, R
hove, R
meet
met
met
Grammatical Functions and Categories
33
shine
shone
shone
shoot
shot
shot
slide
slid
slid
slink
slunk
slunk
stick
stuck
stuck
strike
struck
struck
Similarly, except for the loss of [n]:
stand
understand
4.
stood
understood
base change
past tense
stood
understood
=
of vowel
bear
swear
tear
wear
bore
swore
tore
wore
born(e)
sworn
torn
worn
shear
shore, R
shorn, R
cleave
freeze
speak
steal
weave
clove
froze
spoke
stole
wove
cloven
frozen
spoken
stolen
woven
bite
hide
bit
hid
bitten
hidden
break
broke
broken
choose
chose
chosen
forget
forgot
forgotten
lie
lay
lain
tread
trod
trodden
past participle -(∂)n
34
Part 2: Verbs: Their forms and types
5.
base change
of vowel
past tense
change
of vowel
drink
shrink
sink
stink
drank
shrank
sank
stank
drunk
shrunk
sunk
stunk
ring
sing
spring
rang
sang
sprang
rung
sung
sprung
begin
began
begun
swim
swam
swum
6.
base change
past tense
of vowel
change
past participle
past participle = base # -(∂)n
of vowel
drive
strive
thrive
ride
stride
smite
write
(a)rise
drove
strove
throve, R
rode
strode
smote
wrote
(a)rose
driven
striven
thriven, R
ridden
stridden
smitten
written
(a)risen
fly
flew
flown
7.
base change
past tense
past participle = base
of vowel
come
become
came
became
come
become
run
ran
run
Grammatical Functions and Categories
8. base change
35
past participle = base + -(∂)n
past tense
of vowel
9.
blow
grow
know
throw
blew
grew
knew
threw
blown
grown
known
thrown
forsake
shake
take
forsook
shook
took
forsaken
shaken
taken
(for)bid
(for)give
(for)bade
(for)gave
(for)bidden
(for)given
(with)draw
(with)drew
(with)drawn
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
see
saw
seen
slay
slew
slain
base change
of the final
consonant
past tense
=
bend
lend
rend
send
spend
bent
lent
rent
sent
spent
bent
lent
rent
sent
spent
build
built
built
gird
girt, R
girt, R
have
had
had
make
made
made
past participle
36
Part 2: Verbs: Their forms and types
10. base change
past tense
of the vowel
and of the
final consonant
=
past participle
beseech
teach
besought
taught
besought
taught
bring
brought
brought
catch
caught
caught
seek
sought
sought
Similarly, except for the loss of [k]:
think
thought
11. base change
past tense -d
of the vowel
thought
=
past participle
sell
tell
sold
told
sold
told
flee
fly ( = flee)
fled
fled
fled
fled
hear
heard
heard
say
said
said
shoe
shod
shod
12. base change
past tense -t
of the vowel
=
past participle
i. Base ends in unvoiced sound:
creep
keep
sleep
sweep
weep
leap
crept
kept
slept
swept
wept
leapt, R
crept
kept
slept
swept
wept
leapt, R
Grammatical Functions and Categories
ii.
37
Base ends in voiced sound:
feel
kneel
deal
dream
lean
mean
felt
knelt, R
dealt
dreamt, R
leant, R
meant
felt
knelt, R
dealt
dreamt, R
leant, R
meant
buy
bought
bought
13. base change
past tense -t
of the vowel
and of the
final consonant
=
past participle
bereave
cleave
leave
bereft, R
cleft
left
bereft, R
cleft
left
lose
lost
lost
14. base + -t =
past tense
=
past participle
dwell
smell
spell
dwelt, R
smelt, R
spelt, R
dwelt, R
smelt, R
spelt, R
burn
learn
burnt, R
learnt, R
burnt, R
learnt, R
spill
spilt, R
spilt, R
spoil
spoilt, R
spoilt, R
15. base
regular past tense
past participle = base + -(∂)n
mow
show
sow
mowed
showed
sowed
mown, R
shown, R
sown, R
sew
sewed
sewn, R
hew
strew
hewed
strewed
hewn, R
strewn, R
38
Part 2: Verbs: Their forms and types
lade
laded
laden
prove
proved
proven, R
saw
sawed
sawn, R
shave
shaved
shaven, R
Do, verbs with the suppletive forms (go and be) and the verbs that are irregular in
spelling only concomitantly do not fit any of the groups:
lay
pay
laid
paid
laid
paid
2.R. Readings
2.R.1. Recommended reading
Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum (1973: 3.1-17)
2.R.2. Further reading
Leech, Geoffrey, Jan Svartvik (1975: 595-626; 875-879)
Thomson, A.J., A.V. Martinet (1960: 362-364)
2.R.3. Sample texts for discussion
2.R.3.1. Rolf Berndt: A History of the English Language. Leipzig: Verlag
Enzyklopädie, 1989, page 127.
Apart from -(e)s, which marks the third person singular of the present indicative, the
verb (other than be) in Present-Day English no longer has any person-number affixes.
Speakers of non-standard varieties do not even accept this -(e)s as a person and number
Grammatical Functions and Categories
39
marking form any more, either doing away with it completely or using it (more or less
frequently) in all persons of the singular as well as in the plural (and thus treating it
more or less like a(n additional) signal of `present tense').
Presence or absence of -(e)s in the third person singular of the present tense, it is
true, still serves some purpose as a signal of `mood' (indicative vs. subjunctive) in
Modern Standard English. However as far as indication of person and number are
concerned, there is, in fact, no real `need' for inflectional suffixes, since the noninflectional means to be used obligatorily - distinct pronouns for number and person
and, in the third person, also number distinctive `head nouns' in subject noun phrases are perfectly sufficient to perform this function.
The present state of things, characterized by the almost total absence of inflectional
morphemes to mark number and person in the verb, did not, however, evolve until the
Modern English period. Up to that time, marking for the categories under consideration
was (very) similar to that still to be found in Modern German.
2.R.3.2. Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik: A
Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985,
103-104.
3.11 Irregular full verbs are like regular verbs in that their -s forms and their -ing
forms are predictable from the base (…). But they differ from regular verbs in that
either the past inflection, or the -ed participle inflection, or both of these, are irregular.
More precisely the major differences are:
(a) Irregular verbs either do not have the regular -ed inflection, or else have a variant of
that inflection in which the /d/ is devoiced to /t/ (eg: burn ~ burnt, which occurs
alongside the regular burned).
(b) Irregular verbs typically, but not invariably, have variation in their base vowel. The
explanation of this phenomenon, called GRADATION or ABLAUT, is historical,
and it is characteristic of Indo-European languages in general: choose ~ chose ~
chosen, write ~ wrote ~ written.
(c) Irregular verbs have a varying number of distinct forms. Since the –s form and the
-ing form are predictable for regular and irregular verbs alike, the only forms that
need be listed for irregular verbs are the base form (V), the past (V-ed1), and the –ed
participle (V-ed2). These are traditionally known as the PRINCIPAL PARTS of the
verb. Most irregular verbs have, like regular verbs, only one common form for the
past and the -ed participle; but there is considerable variation in this respect, as the
table shows:
40
Part 2: Verbs: Their forms and types
all three forms alike:
V-ed1 = V-ed2:
V = V-ed1:
V = V-ed2:
all three forms different:
V
V-ed1
V-ed2
cut
meet
beat
come
speak
cut
met
beat
came
spoke
cut
met
beaten
come
spoken
(…)
The 250 or so irregular verbs can be classified on the basis of criteria derived from
the above similarities and differences. Since it is impractical to account for both
pronunciation and spelling together, only pronunciation will be considered in setting up
classes of irregular verbs, and for that matter in deciding whether a verb is irregular or
not. The criteria of classification to be used are the following:
(a) Suffixation in V-ed1 and/or V-ed2 including not only the alveolar suffixes –ed/-t as
in dreamed/dreamt, but also, for V-ed2, nasal suffixes as in shaken, torn.
(b) V-ed identity: i.e. V-ed1 =V-ed2, as in met ~ met.
(c) Vowel identity, if the various principal parts show no difference of base vowel.
2.E. Exercises:
2.E.1. Identify all the verb forms in the text and comment on your list of verbs:
It was morning, and the new sun sparkled gold across the ripples of a gentle sea. A mile
from shore a fishing boat chummed the water, and the word for Breakfast Flock flashed
through the air, till a crowd of a thousand seagulls came to dodge and fight for bits of
food. It was another day beginning. But way off alone, out by himself beyond boat and
shore, Jonathan Livingston Seagull was practicing. A hundred feet in the sky he lowered
his webbed feet, lifted his beak, and he strained to hold a painful hard twisting curve
through his wings...
2.E.2. How do we classify verbs? How do the classes differ from each other?
2.E.3. Use the verbs in 2.E.1. above as well as the forms below to give the rules for:
a. the phonological realization of V-s
kicks
carries
swims
stretches
jumps