Title: Case-study on Sustainable Agriculture: Focusing on the Palm Oil Industry.
Key Words:
Agriculture, Palm Oil, Sustainable, Roundtable, Fair Trade, Small Farmers, Life Cycle
Authors:
Ms Sarala Aikanathan1
Dr Santha Ramu1
Dr Kalyana Sundram2
Dr G. Sasekumar3
Affiliations:
1.Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Administration Building, University of
Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA
2. Malaysian Palm Oil Council. 2nd. Floor, Wisma Sawit, Lot 6, SS6, Jalan Perbandaran,
47301 Kelana Jaya, Selangor, MALAYSIA.
3.Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala
Lumpur, MALAYSIA
1
Abstract:
The palm oil industry has long suffered criticism for destroying forest, wildlife and denying
rightful ownership of land. To avert these persisting criticisms, the Roundtable on
Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) was formed by a diverse group of stakeholders in the palm oil
industry, to promote sustainable agriculture and address environment impact.This
association was formed in 2004, with its' registration in Zurich. Some of the initial members
include: WWF International, Migros, Unilever, Malaysia Palm Oil Association, Sainsbury's
and Aarhus UK. WWF's efforts to work with the palm oil industry were the beginning of this
sustainability effort.
The definition of “sustainable” according to www.thefreedictionary.com is: 1. Capable of
being sustained. 2. Capable of being continued with minimal long-term effect on the
environment: sustainable agriculture. RSPO sustainability efforts begin from good
environmental, social and agricultural practices: where the oil palm is first planted and grown
to it final destination, the plate of a consumers or other products. The RSPO or the
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil has defined sustainability as “the Capability of meeting
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.
Some of the key achievements of the organization so far include: Establishment of the
RSPO Principles & Criteria (P&C) for certification of mills and plantations; Formation of
Working Groups on Green House Gases to address climate change issues; Smallholder
Task Force to protect the rights of small farmers planting oil palm; and Biodiversity Technical
Committee to work out biodiversity issues pertaining to sustainable production and
biodiversity protection and conservation.
The formation of the RSPO has not been without criticism from various sectors, especially
the environmental NGOs. The main issues flagged include: a. Impact of palm oil plantation
expansion on the Orang Utan population; b. Destruction of tropical forest for the new oil palm
plantation schemes in South-East Asia; c. Burning and draining of large tracks of peat
swamp forests in Kalimantan, Indonesia.
2
RSPO now runs into its’ sixth year of operation, and has some success in certifying
plantations and mills. However, the next few years of it’s operation and milestone will show if
it is indeed on a path forward towards sustainable agriculture.
3
Table of Content
page
1. Definition of Agricultural Sustainability
2. Agriculture and Sustainability
3. Sustainability Requirements for:
i.
Resource Demand
ii.
Ecosystem Condition
iii.
Governance
iv.
Economy
v.
Human Wellbeing
4. Oil Palm as Sustainable Agriculture
5. The Concept of Roundtable
6. Roundtable Initiatives
7. Organization Structure of RSPO
8. What is Sustainable Palm Oil?
9. Other Sustainable Palm Oil Initiatives
i.
Malaysian Palm Oil
ii.
Indonesian Palm Oil
10. Sustainable Palm Oil Trade
11. Fair Trade, Affordability and Economy
12. NGOs, Other Stakeholders and the RSPO
13. Criticisms, Gaps and Controversies
14. Future Sustainability Requirement
15. Bibliography
4
1. Definition of Agricultural Sustainability
The definition of sustainable according to www.thefreedictionary.com is: 1. Capable of being
sustained. 2. Capable of being continued with minimal long-term effect on the environment:
sustainable agriculture. While the Brundtland Commission’s definition has defined
sustainability as "the capability of meeting the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.
There are many definitions of sustainable agriculture, organic farming, and ecological
farming. Sustainable agriculture is characterised by managing the land as a living system in
which the farmer/grower acts to support a dynamic balance among the plants, animals,
insects, soil, and water. The essentials are seeing the land a living system embedded in a
broader ecosystem and understanding how to manage all farm practices on the basis of this
holistic perception.
The RSPO or the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil has adopted the Brundtland definition
and has placed efforts begins from good environmental, social and agricultural practices:
where the oil palm is first planted and grown to it final destination, the plate of a consumers
or other products.
2. Agriculture and Sustainability
(Prescott-Allen 2006) depicts a balanced society through the above model, where social and
economic factors are further emphasised through governance, human wellbeing and
resources demands.
5
Figure 1: Graphic combination of 5 pillars. This example displays performance in each
pillar on a 0-100 scale divided into five bands (0-20, 21-40, 41-60, 61-80, 81-100). 0 is at
the centre. The 81-100 band is outside the pentagon and represents “good”
performance. The thicker (red) line shows the performance scores of a hypothetical
country: human wellbeing 68, economy 88, governance 59, resource demand 40, and
ecosystem condition 28. (Prescott- Allen, 2006)
This way of seeing naturally leads to involvement of sustainable farmers/growers in regional
programs for water management, watershed conservation, rebuilding soil quality, ecosystem
restoration, and reforestation. Best farming practices on any one farm contribute directly to
the sustainability region-wide benefit and balance.
Thereby, all activities including agriculture needs to consider the whole human paradigm of
sustainable management, and progress.
6
Figure 2: The generic model below is depicts sustainability in the agriculture sector
(Agricultural Sustainability Organization
The philosophical and analytic framework of sustainability draws on and connects with many
different disciplines and fields; in recent years an area that has come to be called
sustainability science has emerged. Sustainability science is not yet an autonomous field or
discipline of its own, and has tended to be problem-driven and oriented towards guiding
decision-making.
3. Sustainability Requirements for: Resource Demand, Ecosystem Condition,
Governance, Economy, Human Wellbeing
i. Resource Demand
The world population has grown tremendously over the past two thousand years. In 1999,
the world population passed the six billion mark. Latest official current world population
estimate, for mid-year 2009, is estimated at nearly 7 billion people. As the world’s appetite
for edible oils grow, fuelled by demand for everything from food to detergents: it is very
apparent from the UN 2006 figures below the need for edible oils will continue to increase.
7
Figure 3: Expected trends in world population and edible use of vegetable oil.
Population from UNDP(2006)
Almost, 30% of the world’s edible oil supply comes from 1 crop: palm oil, this high-yielding
crop is critical to the world’s food and possibly energy supply. Over 2 million people derive
their livelihood from this crop, and it generates over $200 billion dollars in revenues.
In the two countries responsible for over 80% of world oil palm production, Indonesia and
Malaysia, smallholders account for 35–40% of the total area of planted oil palm and as much
as 33% of the output. Elsewhere, as in West African countries that produce mainly for
domestic and regional markets, smallholders produce up to 90% of the annual harvest.
In Africa, the situation is very different compared to Indonesia or Malaysia. In its Human
Development Report 2007-2008, the United Nations Development Program says production
of palm oil in West-Africa is largely sustainable, mainly because it is undertaken on a
smallholder level without resort to diversity-damaging monoculture.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture program is encouraging small farmers across
Africa to grow palm oil, because the crop offers opportunities to improve livelihoods and
incomes for the poor. At the same time, the large-scale deforestation and harm caused to
the environment has raised the concerns of consumers and None Government
8
Organizations (NGOs) across the world. This pressure created lots of friction between
producers and NGOs. The earth is under threat from a growing population and scarce
natural resources, and sustainable agriculture is critical in the 21st century (Sheil, Casson et
al. 2009).
ii. Ecosystem Condition
Natural resources will be the defining matter to dictate how the human population would
progress and where growth and development will focus. All natural resources: forest, water,
minerals and human development is very much land dependent. Land or space is the basic
need for human’s next plan for progress. And it will be the single most limiting, none
renewable factor in most if not all development. Deforestation and biodiversity lost, and
climate change impact are the main criticism faced by the agricultural development in SEA,
including Malaysia.
According to UNEP (UNEP 2007), at the current rate of intrusion into South-east Asian’s
national parks South-east Asian’s national parks, it is likely that many protected rain forests
will be severely degraded by 2012 through illegal hunting and trade, logging, and forest fires,
including those associated with the rapid spread of palm oil plantations.
Palm oil production has been documented as a cause of substantial and often irreversible
damage to the natural environment. Its impacts include: deforestation, habitat loss of
critically endangered species such as the Orang utan and Sumatran Tiger.
Furthermore, not only is Southeast Asia’s annual deforestation rate the highest in the tropics,
but it has also increased between the periods 1990–2000 and 2000–2005. This could result
in projected losses of 13–85% of biodiversity in the region by 2100. Secondary habitat
restoration, at least in certain countries, would allow for some amelioration of biodiversity
loss and thus potentially lower the currently predicted extinction rates. Nonetheless, urgent
conservation actions are needed. Conservation initiatives should include public education,
sustaining livelihoods, and ways to enhance the sustainability of agriculture and increase the
capacity. (Sodhi, Posa et al. 2008)
However, oil palms are highly efficient producers of oil, requiring less land than any other oilproducing crop. Some oil palm plantations yield more than 6 tonnes of oil per hectare per
year (Jothiratnam 2010).
9
Figure 4: Average yield per year (tonnes of oil per hectare) (Source Oil World Annual
2006)
Oil palm: 3.68
Rapeseed: 0.59
Sunflower: 0.42
Soybean: 0.36
iii. Governance
Governance relates to consistent management, cohesive policies, guidance, processes and
decision-rights for a given area of responsibility.
The governance factor in the palm oil industry comes through various channels. It can come
through the company that manages the industry, such as Sime Darby or Wilmar
International. Or through the local government and its’ agencies such as Malaysian Palm Oil
Council and Malaysian Palm Oil Board in Malaysia while through Indonesian Palm Oil
Commission and the Indonesian Palm Oil Council.
Through association and business deals, the industry also in-direct association governance,
through voluntary acceptance from non-governmental agencies (NGOs) such as the RSPO,
GAPKI (Indonesian Palm Oil Association - Gabungan Pengusaha Kelapa Sawit Indonesia.)
and MPOA (Malaysian Palm Oil Association).
RSPO Governance Structure or the highest authority in the RSPO is the annual general
assembly of members. The assembly will decide the members of the Executive Board, vote
on resolutions pertaining to the RSPO and receive the audited accounts. RSPO is managed
by an Executive Board comprising 16 members who are elected by the General Assembly.
Seats are allocated to the seven stakeholder groups or sectors as follows: Executive Board
Structure
10
Due to this many governance structure, the palm oil industry has move leaps and bounce in
improving it productivity, research and sustainability efforts, however as the influence comes
from different levels and directions there is also confusion and redundancy in the system.
iv. Economy
The theory of ecologically unequal exchange posits that through the vertical flow of exports
from less-developed countries, the stratified world economy enables more-developed
countries to externalize their environmental costs. It is further argued that this externalization
of environmental costs increases forms of environmental degradation within the borders of
less-developed countries. Additional results indicate that deforestation is positively
associated with total population growth and negatively associated with both economic
development
and
the
presence
of
environmental
international
nongovernmental
organizations. (Jorgenson, Dick et al. 2010)
The concept model of (Leahy and Anderson 2010) provides insight into how social capital is
linked between multiple entities within this context. The study findings expand on the current
understanding of social capital and suggest ways researchers might approach future studies
of social capital in similar settings. The findings have natural resource management
implications, including ways of focusing management, increasing public involvement, and
facilitating communication approaches.
Despite Indonesia diversifying away from food crops, food insecurity there declined by nearly
60 per-cent from 1981 to 2007, driven largely by increased food access and higher incomes
(Rada, 2010). Food security is generally defined as sufficient availability of food (2,100
calories per person per day) that is readily accessible (physically available and affordable)
and utilized (nutrient consumption and absorption). Indonesia boosted food availability
through agricultural growth and food imports, but increasing food availability was not the sole
factor contributing to its improved food security. Indonesia's expansion of food accessibility
through greater consumer purchasing power and mobility of goods and services likely has
played a significant role.
Expansion in agriculture activities and other government expenditure in a country is planned
in view of GDP, and The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or Gross Domestic Income (GDI) is
the amount of goods and services produced in a year, in a country. It is the market value of
all final goods and services made within the borders of a country in a year. It is often
11
positively correlated with the standard of living alternative measures to GDP for that
purpose.
Gross domestic product comes under the heading of national accounts, which is a subject in
macroeconomics. GDP can be determined in three ways, all of which should in principle give
the same result. They are the product (or output) approach, the income approach, and the
expenditure approach.
GDP = private consumption + gross investment + government spending + (exports −
imports)
The appropriateness of GDP to evaluate the status of a country was challenged by the
Human Development Index developed by (Haq 1990) The Human Development Index (HDI)
is a composite statistic used to rank countries by level of "human development" and
separately
developed
(high
development),
developing
(middle development),
and
underdeveloped (low development) countries. The statistic is composed from data on life
expectancy, education and per-capita GDP (as an indicator of standard of living). The HDI
has been used since 1990 by the United Nations Development Programme for its annual
Human Development Reports.
All these economic tools are being deliberated to evaluate its’ robustness in setting an
appropriate management model for the palm oil industry.
v. Human Wellbeing
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic used as an index to rank
countries by level of "human development" and separate developed (high development),
developing (middle development), and underdeveloped (low development) countries. A
measure of human development using three equally weighted dimensions of human
development - life expectancy at birth, adult literacy and mean years of schooling and
income (purchasing power per capita in dollars). HDI is an attempt to make 'fairer' but still
statistical measurements of development that became popular at the UN in the 1990s, and
had assigned value between 0 and 1 according to ranking position for each of the factors of
purchasing
power
of
income,
literacy
12
rate
and
longevity.
(Haq,
1990)
Human Mobility and Trans-boundary Changes( Haas, 2009): This report pointed out the
extraordinarily unequal global distribution of opportunities and how this is a major driver of
the movement of people. Our main message is that mobility has the potential to enhance
human development among movers, stayers and the majority of those in destination
societies. However, processes and outcomes can be adverse, sometimes highly so, and
there is therefore scope for significant improvements in policies and institutions at the
national, regional and international levels. Our core package calls for a bold vision and
identifies an ambitious long-term agenda for capturing the large unrealized gains to human
development from current and future mobility
Happiness economics is the study of a country's quality of life by combining economists' and
psychologists' techniques. It relies on more expansive notions of utility than does
conventional economics. Although its usefulness is yet to be determined, it has become a
subject of interest and often a measure of comparison with the traditional forms of measuring
market health such as GDP and GNP.
This field of studies is also called "The economy of happiness". The Satisfaction with Life
Index is an attempt to show the average self-reported happiness (subjective life satisfaction)
in different nations. This is an example of a recent trend to use direct measures of
happiness, such as surveys asking people how happy they are, as an alternative to
traditional measures of policy success such as GDP or GNP. Some studies suggest that
happiness can be measured effectively.
However, a free market think tank Cato Institute points out that since life expectancy has
continued to increase in nations wealthier than this, often partly attributed to economic
growth, Happy Life Years have continued to increase. It has been argued that happiness
measures could be used not as a replacement for more traditional measures but as a
supplement.
4. Oil Palm as Sustainable Agriculture
Elaeis guineensis or the Oil Palm is an ancient plant that still grows wild in West Africa while
also cultivated there and across the tropics. Its oil, extracted from its fruits, has been used as
food and medicine through the ages, the earliest archaelogical evidence suggesting so
being an earthenware jar containing residues of palm oil in a 5,000-year-old Egyptian tomb.
13
The Industrial Revolution in nineteenth century Europe sparked the international trade in
palm oil when demand soared for it as a lubricant for steam engines and other machinery
and for soap. The palm oil trade offered an alternative to the illegal slave trade and
contributed to the eventual decline of the latter in West Africa. In 1848, the Dutch brought the
first African oil palm seedlings to the Far East that later spawned the Southeast Asian oil
palm industry.
The Oil Palm is now, grown by many farmers in South East Asia, Central and West Africa,
and Central America for its fruit, the palm oil. It is locally used as cooking oil, manufactured
into many commercial food and personal care products and, now is converted into biofuel to
replace fossil fuel. An estimated 1.5 million small farmers grow the crop in Indonesia, along
with about 500,000 people directly employed in the sector in Malaysia, plus those connected
with related industries.
As of 2006, the cumulative land area of palm oil plantations is approximately
11,000,000 hectares. In 2005, the Malaysian Palm Oil Association was responsible for about
half of the world's crop (Liefting 2009).
The oil palm industry was one of the first to initiate sustainability efforts through-out its lifecycle from growers to the retailer. This initiative has been not only for the betterment of the
industry, but also to overcome adverse publicity and to put right harmful, tainting practises.
5. The Concept of Roundtable
The roundtable concept for sustainability stems from the Arthurian legend about the Knights
of the Round Table in Camelot.” “A round table is one which has no "head" and no "sides",
and therefore no one person sitting at it is given a privileged position and all are treated as
equals. Thereby, all stakeholders or members of the roundtable are given same weightage
in their priorities and needs to meet the sustainability needs and challenges.
The Roundtable Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) was formed by a diverse group of
stakeholders in the palm oil industry, to promote sustainable agriculture and address the
environmental impact of palm oil. This association was formed in 2004, in this way, RSPO
lives out the philosophy of the "roundtable" by giving equal rights to each stakeholder group
to bring group-specific agendas to the roundtable, facilitating traditionally adversarial
stakeholders and business competitors to work together towards a common objective and
making decisions by consensus.
14
The inaugural meeting of the Roundtable took place in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on 21–22
August 2003 and was attended by 200 participants from 16 countries. The key output from
this meeting was the adoption of the Statement of Intent (SOI) which is a non-legally binding
expression of support for the Roundtable process.
On 8 April 2004, the "Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)," was formally
established under Article 60 of the Swiss Civil Code with a governance structure that
ensures fair representation of all stakeholders throughout the entire supply chain. The seat
of the association is in Zurich, Switzerland, the Secretariat is based in Kuala Lumpur with a
RSPO Liaison office in Jakarta. (Aikanathan 2010).
6. Roundtable Initiatives
Similar initiatives have been in established for other sectors, and they include: Roundtable
on Sustainable Biofuel; Roundtable on Sustainable Forest; Roundtable on Sustainable
Development; Roundtable on Responsible Soy; Roundtable on Sustainable Cocoa
Economy. The roundtables:
i.
The Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels (RSB) is coordinated by the Energy
Center at EPFL in Lausanne, it is an international initiative that brings together
farmers, companies, non-governmental organizations, experts, governments, and
inter-governmental agencies concerned with ensuring the sustainability of
biofuels production and processing;
ii. The Roundtable on Sustainable Forests is an American initiative, open and
inclusive process committed to the goal of sustainable forest management (SFM)
on public and private lands in the United States. This Roundtable includes public
and private organizations and individuals committed to better decision-making
through shared learning, increased understanding and foster dialogue on
sustainable forests;
iii. The Round Table on Sustainable Development was established in 1998 to provide
an informal setting through which ministers can engage one another and key
international business and civil society leaders without prejudice to negotiating
positions on cross-cutting issues;
15
iv. The Round Table on Responsible Soy (RTRS) is an international platform
composed of the main soy value chain stakeholders with the common objective
of promoting the responsible soy production through collaboration and dialogue
among the involved sectors in order to foster economic, social and environmental
sustainability;
v. The Roundtable for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy (RSCE) is an initiative for
dialogue and sustainability amongst all stakeholders in the cocoa economy:
cocoa farmers and cooperatives, traders, exporters, processors, chocolate
manufacturers, wholesalers, governmental and non-governmental organizations,
financial institutions as well as donor agencies.
7. Organization Structure of RSPO
The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) was formed by a diverse group of
stakeholders in the palm oil industry, to promote sustainable agriculture and address the
environmental impact of the palm oil. This association was formed in 2004, with its'
registration in Zurich. Some of the initial members include: WWF International, Migros,
Unilever, Malaysia Palm Oil Association, Sainsbury's and Aarhus UK. Today the
organization has about 500 members, with the secretariat in Malaysia.
RSPO is a voluntary association managed by an executive board. The board members
range from oil palm/palm oil companies to NGOs, in seven core stakeholder groups in all, all
with equal rights to have their say in sustainable production of palm oil. Members join RSPO
in 7 sectors and the sectors are: growers, traders, banks, manufacturers, retailers, social
and environmental non-government organizations.
Each sector is allotted its quota of executive board members who can only be from the
sector and only elected by the members in the sector. The executive board members are
elected at the General Assembly to serve for 2 years, after which they can continue to serve
subject to re-election. The election is on a rotating basis, with half of the seats elected
yearly. The elected members of the executive board elect from among themselves, the
President, the four vice-Presidents and the Treasurer. The Secretary General, who is
appointed by the Board, is responsible for conducting the affairs of the organization including
custodianship of fund and policies of the organization.
16
8. What is Sustainable Palm Oil?
Through working groups formed by voluntary RSPO members, many of them experts in their
own fields, RSPO fulfilled its objective of promoting the growth and use of sustainable palm
oil. RSPO developed a set of standards called the Principles & Criteria (P&C) that define the
practices for sustainable palm oil production. These standards address the legal, economic,
environmental and social requirements of producing sustainable palm oil (RSPO, 2010).
RSPO’s Principles and Criteria (P&C) for sustainable palm oil production are based on these
principles:
a. Commitment to transparency;
b. Compliance with applicable laws and regulations;
c. Commitment to long-term economic and financial viability;
d. Use of appropriate best practices by growers and millers;
e. Environmental responsibility and conservation of natural resources and biodiversity;
f. Responsible consideration for employees and for individuals and communities affected by
growers and mills;
g. Responsible development of new plantings;
h. Commitment to continuous improvement in key areas of activity.
In November 2007 RSPO's members accepted RSPO's Principles & Criteria (P&C's), which
then were available to plantation companies to implement these. First official certifications
were granted by mid-2008. In October 2008, the first batch of Certified Sustainable Palm Oil
(CSPO) landed in the Port of Rotterdam.
9. Other Sustainable Palm Oil Initiatives: Malaysia and Indonesia
i. Malaysian Palm Oil or Malaysian Palm
In 2008, Malaysia produced 17.7 million tonnes of palm oil on 4,500,000 hectares and was
the second largest producer of palm oil, employing more than 570,000 people. Malaysia is
the world's second largest exporter of palm oil. About 60% of palm oil exports from Malaysia
are shipped to China, the European Union, Pakistan, United States and India. They are
mostly made into cooking oil, margarine, specialty fats and oleo chemicals.
17
With the current need to meet the sustainability challenges and also ensure future
acceptance of the palm oil, the Malaysian government with MPOC, MPOB and SIRIM (a
Malaysian research and standards development organization) have embarked to produce a
“Malaysian brand” sustainable palm oil for the consumers. This effort has received much
applause from the consumer and producer nations including Indonesia, India and China.
ii. Indonesian Palm Oil or Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO)
As of 2009, Indonesia was the largest producer of palm oil, surpassing Malaysia in 2006,
producing more than 20.9 million tonnes. The Indonesian aspires to become the world's top
producer of palm oil. FAO data show production increased by over 400% (year: 1994–2004)
to over 8.66 million metric tonnes.
The Indonesian government is finalizing its own scheme for sustainable palm oil production.
The Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil [ISPO] scheme is designed to make palm oil
production sustainable in compliance with Indonesian laws and regulations. Several
executives from the Indonesian Palm Oil Producers Association (GAPKI) and the
government-sponsored Indonesian Palm Oil Board are assisting in the Indonesian
government in its sustainability scheme. Indonesian Palm Oil Commission has waived the
fees for ISPO certification for small- and medium-size companies and smallholders, who
make
40%
of
the
production
volume.
10. Sustainable Palm Oil Trade
Palm oil makes up about 30% share of the edible oils traded and consumed around the
world today. It has been estimated that 40 million tonnes of palm oil was traded in 2008. Late
2009, about 1.5 million tonnes of certified sustainable palm oil was produced through the
RSPO system, which is currently the only one available for palm oil.
Certified sustainable palm oil is traded in one of the following four ways: Identity Preserved,
Segregation, Mass Balance, and the GreenPalm certificate trading programme. Under
“Identity Preserved” the oil can be traced back to the specific plantation in which it has been
cultivated and produced. Under “Segregation” sustainably produced palm oil is kept separate
from the non-sustainably produced oil all through the value chain.
18
The “Mass Balance” should be regarded as an intermediate model towards Segregation,
allowing supply chain companies to gradually prepare for segregated trading. In this model
the certified physical oil is allowed to be mixed with conventional oil throughout the supply
chain, while allowing specific sustainability claims. It is a step towards full segregation,
making use of the same administrative systems as are applicable for Segregation.
Due to the complexities of producing traceable supply chains for sustainable palm oil, many
of the biggest multinational users of palm oil have opted to use Greenpalm, a certificate
trading system that enables palm oil producers to earn a premium for using sustainable
production methods, regardless of whether their product is exported. RSPO-certified
producers are issued certificates for each tonne of certified palm oil that they produce.
End-users can then 'cover' their use of palm oil by buying the certificates from Greenpalm, in
the process supporting sustainable palm oil production. In September 2010, the sale price of
a Greenpalm certificate for one tonne of sustainable palm oil was between $8 and $10. The
certification group UTZ CERTIFIED have developed a system for tracking certified
sustainable palm oil. Since the inception of RSPO, the association has been striving for the
palm oil industry to be sustainable through-out its' life cycle; from the palm to the plate or
end-user (www.greenpalm.com). At the moment, to be recognized as certified sustainable is
only at the following three levels of the supply chain:
a. At the plantation;
b. At the mills;
c. At the supply chain.
The Figure 5: below is the Schematic Overview of the Palm Oil Supply Chain
19
11. Fair Trade, Affordability and Economy
If sustainability is to be achieved, it has to happen in the market sector. This means that
sustainability needs the support of market players, such as companies and producers. And it
must be reinforced by market processes, such as pricing which reflects social and ecological
costs of production and environmental values (Fairtrade Foundation, 2010).
A sustainable market depends on the interaction between three parties: companies
committed to CSR, good governance by governments and involvement of civil society
organizations with firm grounds in society. When all the stakeholders in the chain play their
part, sustainable trade flows occur. This is current lacking in the sustainability life-cycle, and
only the growers/producers seem to hold the cost of the challenge.
Solidaridad, a non-profit organization engages the supply chain at every stage, from farmer
to consumer to stimulate fair trade. The fair trade activities stimulated by Solidaridad are
depicted in the figure below.
Figure 6: Sustainable supply chains according to Solidaridad
12. NGOs, Other Stakeholders and the RSPO
The RSPO stakeholders for the palm oil life-cycle from the palm to user consist of
growers/producers, traders and processors, banks and financial institutions, manufacture,
retailers, social NGOs and environmental NGOs. However, government, media and
consumers are not part of this cycle, thus causing disparity within the industry, and the
acceptability of the current sustainability venture.
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Both governments and associations like the RSPO and GAPKI need to cooperate to ensure
the sustainability efforts bite. For all the principles and criteria will have not hold water if
supporting government policies are not in place.
Then, there are the NGOs like Greenpeace, Rainforest Network and the Friends of the Earth
International (FOEI) that are extremely critical of the palm oil industry and play a watch dog
role over RSPO.
A recent investigation by Greenpeace found worrying issues with one of palm oil buyers'
main palm oil suppliers, which Unilever recently accepted and announced they would stop
using that supplier. Greenpeace is working with the buyers together to lobby for a
moratorium on deforestation for palm oil (Greenpeace, 2010).
"Unilever's decision could represent a defining moment for the palm oil industry. What we're
seeing here is the world's largest buyer of palm oil using its financial muscle to sanction
suppliers who are destroying rainforests and clearing peat lands. This has set a new
standard for others to follow."
13. Criticisms, Gaps and Controversies
i. The Roundtable Concept
The formation of the roundtable concept has not been without criticism from various sectors,
especially the environmental NGOs. The main issues flagged include: a. The impact of palm
oil plantation expansion on the Orang Utan population; b. Destruction of tropical forest for
the new oil palm plantation schemes in South-East Asia; c. The burning and draining of large
tracks of peat swamp forest in Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Most palm oil is produced by large corporate groups that own hundreds of thousands of
hectares of oil palm plantations. The current concept does not require all producers to get
the entirety of their estate certified at once. Companies need to have a 'realistic and
adequately' ambitious plan for certifying their other plantations, if they have ownership of
more than 51% of that plantation, and there are no set a timeline for this, Members can
avoid taking any steps towards the certification of their land.
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There is no permanent monitoring body. Only when there is a written complaint a grievance
panel is established to conduct investigative research and provide recommendations for
action by the RSPO.
ii. Understanding Tropical Biodiversity
In the article: "Have we overstated the tropical biodiversity crisis? Laurance reviews again if
we have overstated the tropical biodiversity crisis? His work is supported by the vigorous
debate following a study by Wright and Muller-Landau that challenges the notion of largescale tropical extinctions, at least over the next century. Laurance (2007) describes this
controversy and how the debate is stimulating a serious examination of the causes and
biological consequences of future tropical deforestation.
Therefore, any meaningful success in tropical conservation will, hence, need active
collaboration by the civil society, biologists, social scientists, lawyers, funding agencies,
national and multinational corporations, governments and non-governmental organizations.
Concerted research efforts are urgently needed to understand the imperilled tropical
biodiversity (Sodhi 2008)
.
iii. Scientific Tools and International Standards:
Scientific tools and standards, such as ISO are important in international trade because
incongruent standards can be barriers to trade, giving some organizations advantages in
certain areas of the world. Scientific tools and Standards provide clear identifiable references
that are recognized internationally and encourage fair competition in free-market economies.
Standards facilitate trade through enhanced product quality and reliability, greater
interoperability and compatibility, greater ease of maintenance and reduced costs.
In applying the ISO International Standards, accounting of GHG mitigation and adaptation
efforts in reduction of emissions requires two key areas to be addressed; firstly, what ISO
GHG International Standards be used? And secondly, when incentivising the beneficial
climate change mitigation practices care should be made to avoid any potential conflict with
the World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules. Finally, the issue of cost in measuring, reporting
and verifying (MRV) of climate change mitigation and adaptation activities must be matched
hopefully with premium prices.
Hooijer et al (2006) (Aljosja, Wösten et al. 2006) estimated that the production of 1 tonne of
oil palm on fully-drained peatland can result in CO2 emissions of 10-30 tonnes due to peat
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oxidation. However, various greenhouse (GHG) emission reduction gas savings values for
palm oil have been reported by different researchers due to the different methodologies and
approaches used in life cycle assessment. Such differences could be significant, ranging
from 19% to as high as 80%. This has made it very difficult for international
authorities/agencies drafting biofuel legislations and standards to find a consensus for a
universally accepted value for palm oil and other oilseed crops’ greenhouse gas emission
reduction savings. Scientists and practitioners have been logger head to put the best
number for practice. Overcoming assumption barrier and over-sight is vital for the future
placement of values in the palm oil Industry (Yew, Sundram et al. 2010).
Paradoxically, few historical or contemporary coextinction events have actually been
recorded (Dunn et al. 2009) We review the current knowledge of coextinction by: (i)
considering plausible explanations for the discrepancy between predicted and observed
coextinction rates; (ii) exploring the potential consequences of coextinctions; (iii) discussing
the interactions and synergies between coextinction and other drivers of species loss,
particularly climate change; and (iv) suggesting the way forward for understanding the
phenomenon of coextinction, which may well be the most insidious threat to global
biodiversity.
Of the 20 studies reviewed, seven reported higher species richness/diversity in undisturbed
(or the least disturbed) forest than in disturbed habitats, nine reported the opposite trend,
three reported no difference and one reported a strong influence of seasonality on the
impacts of logging. Some of these studies may contain inherent methodological biases
resulting from the failure to control for sampling effects, the lack of consideration for the
spatial scale of analysis and incomplete sampling of the vertical strata in tropical rainforests
(KOH 2007).
iv. Lack of Data for Sustainability Challenges
There has been a perpetual need to meet the challenges that are met by growers and
producers to implement practices that will make the production palm oil economically viable
and sustainably acceptable. The London Zoological Society(LZS), have initiate a web-portal,
(Persey and Anhar 2010) to assist planters and growers to undertake proper planting and
agricultural practises. A database for users on biodiversity information has been set-up by
the LZS for this purpose.
More and similar efforts in required sooner to ensure the direction for the industry is
consistent and viable.
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An Assessment Tool and Integrated Index for Sustainable Oil Palm Production have shown
the need to define and implement social responsibility and sustainable benchmarks. They
have proposed the adaptation of a ‘System for Weighted Environmental Impact Assessment
in Oil Palm Production’ (APOIA-Oil Palm) (Rodrigues, Verwilghen et al. 2010).
The present document reports on the conceptual basis, the methodological adaptation and
the validation field trials carried out for consolidation of the proposed APOIA-Oil Palm
sustainability index. The experience attained in the development and international
negotiation of this proposed sustainability index, dedicated to such an important productive
sector such as that of palm oil, can be instrumental for other environmental management
and agriculture produce.
v. Land Assignments and Changing Boundaries
Projected conservation risk, measured as regional levels of land-cover change in relation to
area protected, is the greatest at high latitudes (due to climate change) and
tropics/subtropics (due to land-use change). Only some high-latitude nations prone to high
conservation risk are also of high conservation value, but their high relative wealth may
facilitate additional conservation efforts. In contrast, most low latitude nations tend to be of
high conservation value, but they often have limited capacity for conservation which may
exacerbate the global biodiversity extinction crisis (Lee and Jetz 2008).
While our approach will clearly benefit from improved land-cover projections and a thorough
understanding of how species range will shift under climate change, our results provide a
first global quantitative demonstration of the urgent need to consider future environmental
change in reserve-based conservation planning. They further highlight the pressing need for
new reserves in target regions and support a much extended ‘north–south’ transfer of
conservation resources that maximizes biodiversity conservation while mitigating global
climate change.
vi. Carbon Pay-off in the Palm Oil Industry
International organisations have begun to pin their hopes of reform on the creation of a
global market in carbon to curb deforestation, although whether this will help or harm
indigenous peoples is a matter of debate. Indeed, initial calculations based on current prices
in the voluntary carbon trading market, suggest that market-based payments for Reducing in
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Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) will not be enough by
themselves to make economies based on maintaining natural forests competitive with oil
palm.(Colchester 2010)
Carbon pay-off in the palm oil industry yet to be defined, and the industry needs to work hard
to establish this equation, as lucrative as it has been painted.
But concern is mounting that crop-based biofuels will increase net greenhouse gas
emissions if feedstock are produced by expanding agricultural lands (Gibbs, Johnston et al.
2008). Here we quantify the ‘carbon payback time’ for a range of biofuel crop expansion
pathways in the tropics. We use a new, geographically detailed database of crop locations
and yields, along with updated vegetation and soil biomass estimates, to provide carbon
payback estimates that are more regionally specific than those in previous studies.
Using this cropland database, we also estimate carbon payback times under different
scenarios of future crop yields, biofuel technologies, and petroleum sources. Under current
conditions, the expansion of biofuels into productive tropical ecosystems will always lead to
net carbon emissions for decades to centuries, while expanding into degraded or already
cultivated land will provide almost immediate carbon savings.
Future crop yield improvements and technology advances, coupled with unconventional
petroleum supplies, will increase biofuel carbon offsets, but clearing carbon-rich land still
requires several decades or more for carbon payback. No foreseeable changes in
agricultural or energy technology will be able to achieve meaningful carbon benefits if cropbased biofuels are produced at the expense of tropical forests.
14. Future Sustainability Requirement
Sustainability in agricultural practises is no more an option, and agriculture need to feed the
growing billions in the earth’s population. And the ever degrading environment needs
protection and restoration.
RSPO now runs into its’ sixth year of operation, and has some success in certifying
plantations and mills. However, the next few years of it’s’ operation and milestone will show
if it is indeed path forward towards sustainable agriculture.
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But, we can afford to fail with or without RSPO and other efforts by the industry similar to
Malaysian Palm and ISPO should be given encouragement and support. Similar effort
should be promoted in the rest of the oil palm world (Foong-Kheong, Sundram et al. 2010).
If sustainability is to be achieved, it has to happen in the market sector. This means that
sustainability needs the support of all the market players in supply chain.
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