A SYSTEMIC – FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SELECTED CIGARETTE
ADVERTISEMENTS
BY
DR. SOLA T. BABATUNDE
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
UNVIERSITY OF ILORIN
ILORIN
ABSTRACT
Communication is a continuous process of interpersonal negotiation. In the dynamic
nature of language use, texts and meanings become both the sources and objects of
negotiation. Where a piece of communication which is overtly persuasive in its semiotic
function, has apparent contradictory social and linguistic inputs, it is communicatively and
pragmatically rewarding to examine the strategies involved in choosing, organizing and
presenting the components of the text.
This article therefore examines the organization of the cigarette advertisements using
the systemic – functional approach. The analysis revealed that an effective management of
the features of the context of situation, the interpersonal ideational and textual metafunctions
and the discourse features of the types of process is responsible for whatever measure of
success cigarette advertisements achieve.
1. INTRODUCTION
Human existence and development depend to a large extent on language for
communication. This presupposes at once, that the end and purpose of language is the
enhancement of communicative interaction in human society. Experience has shown that an
individual without the means of effective communication in the society does not fully exist in
such a society. Communication functions to meet both the material and non-material needs
of man (Babatunde, 2002:2) Mac Bride (1980:15) also submits that
Man does not live by bread alone; the need for communication is
evidence of an inner urge toward a life enriched by cooperation with
others.
A crucial mode of communication, which also seeks to satisfy the human urge for life
in abundance, is advertising. Advertising affords the producer/seller the opportunity to
create the awareness of his product (goods and services) to the public. The advertisers’
message is meant to persuade, educate, inform and entertain the existing or prospective
consumers about a company, and its products and services. Advertising is designed, among
other things, to induce change of behaviour or attitude through the communication of
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information. As Backman (1968:5) submits, the success of any advertising strategy depends
on
… how many people might conceivably respond to the
advertising and the ease with which such a group can de
induced to respond.
As such, in advertising, verbal and non-verbal codes are persuasively deployed such
that the advert appeals to the target audience (TA).
The persuasive goal of advertising and the human effect of tobacco on individual’s
health makes government to often control matters relating to the sales of the products of
tobacco. The obvious contradiction in the different aspects of tobacco – its production, sales
and consumption – exposes the advertising of tobacco products to the prying eyes: while the
producers and the marketers work towards ensuring increase in the consumption of tobacco
products, religious, health organizations, and other governmental agencies consistently
advocate for its total ban. The Tobacco Smoking Control Decree No 2 of 1990 of the Federal
Government of Nigeria is a major evidence of the moves against the production and
consumption of tobacco. Though the decree was not prohibitive, it made it mandatory for
health warning to be incorporated on cigarette packs and on every advertisement package.
This study therefore seeks to investigate the strategies used in the advertisement (ad)
package of cigarettes with a view to unraveling some of the cigarette marketing strategies,
which draws consumers to cigarette products. What communicative strategies are used in the
ads? What are the linguistic, paralinguistic and nonverbal codes on the ads, which have
enabled the producers to succeed in persuading the consumers? What is the structure of
meaning present in a typical cigarette ad?
To enable us carry out this investigation effectively, we have opted for the systematic
functional model of analysis. We are sampling ads from three internationally recognized
companies: St. Moritz, Rothmans, and Benson and Hedges. We have selected three different
ads of each of these companies – making nine samples in all.
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
In this section, we shall briefly discuss the concept of advertising/advertisement and
also review the Systemic Functional Approach to language enquiry, as a way of presenting
the theoretical basis for our analysis of Cigarette Ads in this study.
Advertisement
The American Marketing Association (AMA) defines advertising as
… any paid form of non – personal presentation and promotion
of ideas, goods and services by an identified sponsor.
Crucial issues raised here include the fact that ads are paid for, it is not a personal promotion
and there is always an “identified sponsor.”
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Kotler (1980:487) talks about the informative and persuasive nature of ads when he
says,
Advertising is the use of paid media by a seller to communicate
persuasive information about its products, services or organization.
Ads are said to focus on the creation of product differentiation by advertising the
peculiarities of the products. Brand images are thus created in the sensibilities of the
audience and these become activated when purchase decisions are to be taken. “Product
Attributes” are thus used as tools to persuade and influence the audience.
Every ad carries a message. The success of the message depends on its Execution.
Message execution does not depend only on what is said, but also on how it is said. How a
message is said is seen as its Execution Style. This study seeks to thus examine the execution
style of the selected sample ads in order to reveal the factors responsible for the measure of
success cigarette ads achieve. The study also proposes that a typical cigarette ad has an
internal structure of meaning. The successful perception of this structure by the TA is the
preparatory condition for the success of the ad to the TA.
A Systemic – Functional Framework
Language (both verbal and non verbal) is used for persuasive interactions by
advertisers to influence the actions of the target audience. The encoder designs his ads with a
demonstrated consciousness of the psychological, social, cultural, economic, political,
environmental and linguistic context of the setting where the ad is to be displayed. The ad
thus becomes a representation of the encoder’s perception of the TA’s world or dream world.
The TA’s ideological perception of certain aspects of life, their experiences, or what they will
like to experience become what the ad thrusts upon their sensibilities. The advertisers
represent the world and experiences in the ads with the aim of sensitizing and mobilizing the
TA into a particular line of action through the meaning thus encoded. As such, the
interacting forces of the contextual constituents on both the encoder and decoder’s influence
the designing of the ads and the consequent purchasing decision.
The meaning so conveyed is not only based on the linguistic representation of the ad,
but on some other aspects of the shared knowledge between encoder’s and targeted
decoder’s exploited in the ads. The advertisers deploy language (both verbal and non verbal)
as a system and as a functional tool. In other words, encoders “appraise the value of
(linguistic) symbols not only in their content, but also in all the nuances of meaning they
possess (Babatunde, 2000:147). The consciousness of the TA is stirred up and aroused to a
positive action through this meaning.
In any form of communication, the meaning conveyed, at the levels of linguistic and
non – linguistic representation, depends on the systematic process of effective interaction
among interlocutors.
There is a system of network in any piece of communication. This system of network
is deployed to perform certain semantic functions. The sum total of what is coded becomes
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the basis for the negotiation of meaning between the interlocutors. As the encoder transmits
the different modes of meaning construed by the grammar, the decoder is “guided” to
recognize the encoder’s intention in transmitting his message. The decoder is “guided”
through the choices made by the encoder to structure the meaning of his message.
For ease of clarification and analysis, meaning conveyance is often seen as a structured
process. This involves the encoder’s proper deployment of the microforms as building
strategies of the overall meaning structure conveyed. Microforms should be skillfully
cemented to create an attractive and an imposing structure in the consciousness of the
decoder such that the micro – structures are recognized.
This study proposes a four- step structure of analysis for consumer ads, precisely here,
cigarette ads. The first step, named Context, involves base features of context, such as the
socio-cultural, psychological, economic, political, environmental and linguistic. This is the
sum total of the background knowledge which informs the coding of a message, and it is the
same that the decoder ultimately exploits to make necessary predictions about the meanings
intended by the encoder (Melrose, 1995:47) In a similar discussion, Babatunde (2000:147)
observes that
… the socio-cultural awareness, the degree to which he [a writer] is
rooted in his environment is largely manifested in the way these
relevant linguistic and contextual features flow wittingly or otherwise
into the writing.
This forms one part of what Halliday (1978) calls Situation:
Perhaps, the second part of what Halliday refers to as Situation is approximately
referred to in our model as Input. It is at this level that all the contextual variables earlier
identified have become ground and mixed together to give rise to the first signs of the
Ideological side of language use (Melrose, 1985:40 – 43). At this level, features of situation
types as determinants of choices to be made for effective encoding and decoding of meaning
begin to come to the fore. Decisions relating to encoder’s intention; audience and channel(s)
are taken at this stage. Such decisions are determined by the competence of the encoder to
understand the constellation of meanings deriving from the semiotic system in the setting of
interaction. On the other hand, the ability of the decoder to size up the features at this level
facilitates his tuning in to the exchange. The features constraining the choice of field, tenor
and mode are in operation here.
The third is the Process stage. The macro-features of the previous steps have now
become micro-features, which are building blocks for the perceptible textual structure of the
message. Here we see the clear realization of the semiotic meaning potential of the message.
Discussive formation, interaction sequence and the exploration of Schemas (Melrose, 1995:49)
are the apparent features of this step. Also choices as to the appropriate process type in this
kind of communication are also made. Matthiessen and Halliday (1997) identify four steps:
material, mental, verbal and relational (p. 13)
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The fourth step is the Product itself. This is the physical manifestation of Text and its
actual reception by the decoder. The TA interacts with the Text to derive the intended
“benefits” packaged for him by the encoder/advertiser. Also part of this stage is the outcome
of the interaction. Pragmatics refers to this outcome as the perlocutionary effect(s) of the
message.
It is crucial to note that the code packaged and delivered by the advertiser also
includes paralinguistic and nonverbal ones. At this stage of the actual interaction of TA with
text, what TA does is to perceive the configurations of the process types deliberately
arranged to make the message appeal to him. We present the framework in Figure 1.
ENCODING PROCESS
2
3
1
4
CONTEXT
INPUT
PROCESS
PRODUCTS
*Sociocultural
*Psychological
*Economic
*Political
*Environmental
*Linguistic
*Ideology
(Ideological
Formations)
*Audience
*Intention
*Genre Choices
*Channel &
Symbolic
Function(s)
(Constraints in
Choices)
*Discursive
formations
*Interaction
sequence
*Exploitation of
schemes
(The interplay
of systems &
Metafunctions)
*Interaction
with TEXT.
*Slices of Life
*Arousal &
Performance
*Affect displays
DECODING PROCESS
Figure 1: A Four-step structure of Analysis for Consumer Ads. (Babatunde, 2006)
3. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
This paper submits that meaning is conveyed when the TA recognizes the meaning
structure and as such, forms used as building blocks must be part of the worldview of the TA
(i.e. TA’s cultural conception) as well as being simple enough for interpretation and
understanding. Therefore, conventional semantic devices, simple written, unwritten and
nonverbal aspects of meaning should be used in advertising for ease of interpretation and
understanding.
The data for this study are classified into three groups, namely
(a) Rothmans King-size Cigarette Advertisements (RKA)
(b) Benson and Hedges King-size Cigarette Advertisements (BHA)
(c) St. Moritz Menthol Cigarette Advertisements (SMA)
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This classification also informs the structure of this analysis, as each group shall be
discussed/analysed one after the other using the framework presented in the previous
section of this essay as the tool for analysis. To avoid unnecessary repetition, we shall use
Rothmans ads as our sample analysis
3.1
Meaning Structure of Rothmans King-Size Ads
(a) Description:
The settings of the selected Rothmans King-size Ads (henceforth called RKA) are
conceptualized as follows:
(i) The sport concept
(ii) The office concept
(iii) The musical concept
The three ads open with the general introduction TASTE SUCCESS, in upper case
lettering; and they all also conclude with THE BEST TOBACCO MONEY CAN BUY. Apart
from the picture of the pack of Rothmans cigarette, with its the label, this information and the
conclusion, so to speak are all the verbal codes in the three ads.
The first datum, which has the sport concept, has six sports men in it, five of them are
at the background in various jubilant postures, while the fifth who is the only one in suit
(perhaps the manager, or so) is foregrounded holding the trophy won by the team. Also at
the background is a cheering crowd in the stadium setting.
The second datum has the office concept. There are also six people here, one lady and
five men. Five of them seem to be clamoring to congratulate the one who is at the
foreground, who seems to have won a deal (or so) for the company.
Datum three of RKA has a musical concept setting. There are five musicians in the ad in a
jubilant mood perhaps after a very successful musical concert. Each, except the only lady in
the picture, is holding a musical instrument. Again, they all seem to make the foregrounded
member of the group the rallying point of their jubilation.
(b) Structural Analysis
The RKAs’ present a beautiful mixture of the verbal and non-verbal codes. Due to the
sparing use of the verbal, the non-verbal seems to predominate.
The RKAs exploit the psychological, socio-cultural, environmental, economic and
linguistic features of the TA’s context. The manifestation of this will be clearer as we examine
the perceptible Input features of the ads.
With respect to the Input features, there is a pervasive and infectious situation of
success. The dream world of an average person is inhabited by marked indices of success.
The pursuit of success can be executed with great determination. The intention of the
encoder apparently is to appeal to the TA’s sensibilities. The symbolic function of the channel
is being carefully woven at this stage and the success achieved becomes more apparent in the
subsequent stages of our analysis.
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In the Process stage, the factors considered in the Context and Input stages have now
acted as constraints for the choice of field, tenor and mode. Appropriate Schemas (Brown &
Yule, 1983:349) in the TA’s information memory are exploited so that the recognized social
situation of sport, office and musical concepts can enable him (TA) to understand the subject
matter of discourse.
The Product stage presents the Text to the TA. Each of the three ads in this group has
two sentences. The first is an elliptical imperative “Taste Success”, while the second is also an
elliptical declarative – The best tobacco money can buy. We shall now briefly illustrate the
network of metafunction in the verbal codes.
The two clauses do not easily yield to the conventional textual identification of the
theme/rheme dichotomy. Clause (a) taste success, does not have a clear referent and indeed
the grammatical subject that can be easily recaptured as “You”, (i.e. You (should) taste
success). This polite remark is so marked that taste can easily be interpreted as the theme,
while “success” the direct object becomes the rheme.
The ideational metafunction of Transitivity has only the overt choice of Process (taste)
and the sufferer of the action (success). The second clause has no overt finite verb, “the best
tobacco money can buy” is a descriptive expression of the object of display, Rothmans
Cigarette (that is in “This is the best tobacco money can buy”). The modal responsibility on
the part of the TA audience is to comply with the polite imperative in “Taste Success”.
The primary options in process type can equally be identified as they are used to rouse
the interest of the TA in the product. This is however very complex because of the sparing
use of words and the abundant deployment of visual/pictorial symbols. The Material
Process is a combination of “doing” and “happening”. “Taste Success” commands the action
of ‘taste’, while the TA sees a celebration of success going on /happening by three different
groups of people.
The Mental Process is overtly marked by the joint appeal to the sense of taste and of
sight (see the jubilant groups). The covertly marked senser is the TA who has been directed
to partake of the experience he is watching. It can be infectious!
The TA is guided into recovering the Verbal Process in the expression “The advertiser
says I should taste success”. The verbiage is “taste success”. In the Relational aspect, “taste”
is the process, while “success” is the Attribute. The “Carrier” is the covert Referent, the TA.
This analysis reveals the Verbal Projection of “Taste Success” which becomes the Theme of
each of the three ads in this group. The rhetorical body of the message (both literally and
metaphorically) is the pictorial slices of life in the three concepts of sports, office and the
musical.
The pictorial Projection is the main text of this group of ads. The Execution style
invites the TA to join the jubilant groups in having a taste of success. The models, either on
their feet or in the sitting position give an alluring appearance. There is a general atmosphere
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of ecstasy, which becomes heightened by their radiant facial expression. From the display of
the trophy won, to the warm handshake, and the golden musical instruments, we see a vivid
Display and Projection of Success. The alluring display of the open pack of Rothmans can
also not be mistaken.
The ads all end with the epithet: “The best tobacco money can buy”. The arrangement
of the epithet and the Rothmans pack shows that the expression makes an endophoric
reference to the object on display. This conclusion evaluates Rothmans in terms of quality
and value of money used in buying it. It is a declarative, which has been authoritatively
deployed to appeal to the TA’s sense of reasoning to evaluate Rothmans. The superlative
adjective, ‘best’ is also chosen for effect.
The expected effect of this on the TA can be any or a combination of some of the
following: Product Acceptance, Product Preference, Product Purchase, Product Switching or
Product Loyalty. Well, we can also not rule out the possibility of indifference or outright
rejection. This will however be because of other factors outside of the ads.
Clearly, the Rothmans ads analyzed have presented such an imposing semantic
structure that the background of societal rejection and anti-smoking campaign has been
thoroughly dwarfed. We shall elaborate more on this in the discussion section.
3.2
Discussion
In this section, we shall undertake a general discussion of the structural features of
the analyzed three groups of cigarette advertisements, so as to reveal the system of choices
made and the functions to which the choices have been put.
The pervasive Message Execution Style of the three groups of ads selected is the
staging of different slices of life. Rothmans depicts success, Benson and Hedges (B&H)
portrays an overwhelming sense of aloneness and freedom, while St. Moritz (SM) gives an
air of elegance and relaxation. The shared knowledge of the natural desire for pleasure, joy,
satisfaction and fulfillment is greatly evoked in the ads.
The portrayed perfect state of satisfaction is presented in form of the ideal which is
attainable; whereas in the real sense of it, this utopia is fantasy, or at best fictional. However,
the objects and models in the pictures are the things the TA feels he could identify with.
There is therefore a pervasive Mood of a slice of life which is very attainable, and the
cigarettes being offered are capable of putting this ideal on the TA’s lap effortlessly. All the
TA has to do is choose SUCCESS, FREEDOM or ELEGANCE (and Relaxation) as the case
may be. That is, choose either or all of the products in the ads.
With this Execution Style, it is interesting to therefore examine the role language has
been deployed to play in the cigarette ads. Language is sparingly used. Apart from the trade
names of the products being advertised, what follows is the extent of verbal codes on the ads:
A. Rothmans 1. TASTE SUCCESS
2. THE BEST TOBACCO MONEY CAN BUY
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B. Benson and Hedges
3. BODY & SOUL
4. UP & AWAY
5. FREE AND EASY
6. BE GOLD, BENSON &HEDGES
C. St. Moritz.
7. THE COOL, SMOOTH CHOICE
Such a sparing use of verbal codes has the significance of making the TA to become
very reflective in order to unravel the sense(s) of the largely ambiguous expressions. The TA
is to fill up the gap.
What is however missing in words has been supplied by nonverbal codes. Before we
discuss the features of the nonverbal means of communication, it is important to submit that
the sparing use of verbal codes is connected with the negative campaigns against smoking.
Since the claim of the health institutions on the dangers of cigarette to smokers is based on
facts, many words may get the advertisers into legal problems and thus attract serious
sanctions against the products. The advertisers thus talk less, while they leave the TA to see
the make-believe pictures themselves and be positively disposed to the products.
Marlow (1954; Quoted from Hargie , 1986:27) has a hierarchy of human needs (See figure 2
below)
Aesthetic
needs
Self-actualization
needs
Esteem needs (Self respect
and esteem of others)
Belongingness and love needs (love, affection …)
Safety needs (Security, freedom from fear, dependency)
Physiological needs (Water, food, heat, etc)
Figure 2: Marlow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs
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Marlow’s submission is that the individual has needs and the meeting of these
needs is the goal being pursued in life. In other words, goals being pursued are directly
influenced by the degree of motivation, which they have for each goal. This is in turn
influenced by their needs.
The advertisers have exploited this natural human tendency by placing their message
within identifiable and meaningful social and psychological contexts. There is a sense in
which each ad makes an implicit claim to being able to satisfy each of these needs, depending
on which one is uppermost in the mind of the TA. Let us briefly illustrate this using the St.
Moritz ads (SMA)
NEEDS
Physiological
Safety Needs
Belongings
and
Love needs
Esteem Needs
Self-actualization
Aesthetic
SIGNAL
Cigarette is consumable
Since people still take tobacco not all smokers die (or most don’t die)
The exquisite homely setting is meant for many, at least family
members. (In reality, cigarettes are shared among smokers).
Any occupant of the setting has affluence and as such respectable
Living in the setting portrayed is a mark of self-actualization and
fulfillment.
The exquisite beauty of the setting is alluring. It is a perfect mixture of
gold, diamond and life (green).
Figure 3: Analysis of St. Moritz’s Ads claim on Needs
What the advertisers attempt to do is to manipulate the TA with the promises (overt and
implicit) that their needs (whatever it may be) will be met. The sparing use of words and the
display of non-verbal codes is to achieve a medium degree of arousal so as to have optimum
level of performance in the TA.
Apart from the possible claim to being able to satisfy all needs, each ad group also
appears to have a concentrated focus on a selection of the needs. This is presented in Figure
4.
ADVERT/PRODUCT
ROTHMANS
BENSON & HEDGES
ST.MORITZ
NEEDS IN FOCUS
Physiological, Belongingness, Self-actualization and Aesthetic
Physiological, Safety and Self-actualization.
Physiological, Esteem, Self-actualization and Aesthetic
Figure 4: A Table of Needs’ focused in Cigarette Product Ads.
An effective semiotic device used by the marketers in the ads is to handle the
marketing of the cigarette as a second order field of discourse. Most consumer ads start by
making the advertised products the theme of the message, while the rheme is the benefits
derivable from patronizing such a product. The cigarette ads selected have used a
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predominantly symbolic means of staging their product. Any of the nine samples gives the
impression that other subject matters on life and living are being discussed; e.g. Success
(Rothmans), Freedom (Benson & Hedges) and Elegance (St. Moritz). When the attention of
the TA has been drawn to these subject matters, the main goal of the ad (that is the products)
is then subtly introduced. This is perhaps an effective way of distracting attention from the
negative publicity on tobacco products. It is a deceptive ploy.
Each of the ads is analysed to have a semantic cum rhetorical structure. They all have
introduction, body and conclusion, as demonstrated in the sample analysis. Secondly, the
framework used for the sample analysis has four steps which can work for both the encoding
and the decoding of the message. The encoder, for instance, begins from step one to utilize
the contextual variables as foundation for the presentation of his message. He then works
through the steps until the Text is made available to the TA in step four. The decoder (or TA)
on the other hand, begins from the Text to discover its meaning. The extent to which he is
able to identify with the message ( in terms of perception or recognition) is determined by his
depth of recognizing what the encoder has exploited of the mutually shared contextual
background. So the TA works from step four backward.
CONCLUSION
This study has demonstrated that persuasive communication can thrive even in the
environment of dissuasive forces. In a situation where dissuasive facts tend to discourage
would-be consumers, a marketer/advertiser can rely on a range of semiotic features that will
appeal to the eyes and hearts of the TA, if not their heads. Arousal and Performance (Hagie,
1986: 28-29) are motivational tools capable of bailing the cigarette marketer out in the coexistence of the contradictory web of the persuasive and the dissuasive in the same ad.
The sparing use of the verbal codes enables the ads to engage more in symbolic
communication rather than the literal one. The dissuasive information, which is exclusively
verbal, uses the word “smokers”. This word, or its symbol was not used at all in the ads. No
one is seen holding a stick of cigarette and the TA is not enjoined to smoke. Rather other
forms of action are referred to in the ads; e.g. taste (of success), being gold and making a cool,
smooth choice. The models in the different groups of ads are either seen taking those
prescribed actions, or are (efficiently) imagined to be doing so.
There is a pervasive atmosphere of the alluring. Colours are perfectly mixed and
actions are coordinated and goal-driven. The semantic structure is perfectly rhetorical in its
persuasive qualities and the TA’s imagination is made to run really wild for the attainment of
the pleasurable. However, we shall end with Tony’s counsel in She Stoops to Conquer
(Goldsmith, 1961: )
All that glitters is not gold
Pleasure seems sweet
But proves a gloss of bitters.
In spite of the glitters of the ads, the facts regarding the effects of the products could not be
refuted directly by the ads.
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In all, cigarette ads seem to have the measure of success they have because of the
effective handling of the system of choices available in the communication of intended
meaning.
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