UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
ARTS
HIS 105:
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
Published
UNIT: 3
2007©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any
form, by mimeograph or any other means without prior permission in
writing from the University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic
programme of the Centre for Distance Learning, University of
Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate, University of
Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-65-7
ii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
PREFACE
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can do
most of the study on their own. The structure of the study unit is
different from that of conventional textbooks. The course writers have
made efforts to make the study material rich enough but learners need
to do some extra reading for further enrichment of the knowledge
required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities and
where feasible, use the Internet. References are provided to guide the
selection of reading materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course writers
and editors for making this possible. Their efforts will no doubt help
in improving access to University education.
Professor J. D. Amin
Vice-Chancellor
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to
simplify your study. In each topic of the unit, we have introduction,
objectives, in-text, summary and self-assessment exercise.
The study unit should take 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will be
available at designated contact centers for tutorials. The center
expects you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read further
you could supplement the study with more information from the list
of references and suggested readings available in the study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can help
you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood
the topic. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the
study unit for you to assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of
examination type questions for you to answer and send to the center.
You are expected to work on your own in responding to the
assignments. The TMA forms part of your continuous assessment
(C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you. In addition,
you will also write an end of Semester Examination, which will be
added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the
different units of your study.
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HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
For the students of archaeology to have a proper grasp of
the prehistory of the Nigerian region, an in-depth study will
have to be undertaking on the Stone Age culture, the metal age
and the beginning of agriculture i.e. the domestication of plants
and animals. This led to the beginning of urban centres – chapter
one identified the various periodozation in prehistory, chapter
two highlights the direct and indirect evidence plants and
animals. Chapter three delineated the three schools of thoughts
as regard the origin of African iron working. Chapter four
portrays the urbanization as a consequence to some of the
earlier developments in prehistory. Chapter five to nine is a
specific study of some prominent prehistoric sites in Nigeria.
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HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
HIS 105:
UNIT: 3
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNITS: 3
T A B L E O F C O N T E N TS
PAGES
PREFACE
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HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
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INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
TOPIC:
1. THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD
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2. AGRICULTURAL BEGINNING
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3. IRON AGE -
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4. URBANISATION -
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5. NOK CULTURE IN PRE-HISTORY -
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6. IGBO-UKWU CULTURE IN PRE-HISTORY
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7. BENIN CULTURE IN PRE-HISTORY
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8. IFE CULTURE IN PRE-HISTORY -
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9. ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE CHAD BASIN -
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SOLUTION TO EXERCISES
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T O P I C 1:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
1.0
TOPIC:
THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD -
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1.1
INTRODUCTION -
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1.2
OBJECTIVES
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1.3
IN-TEXT
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1.3.1
THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD
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1.4
SUMMARY -
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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1.6
REFERENCES
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1.7
SUGGESTED READING
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1.0 TOPIC: THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD
1.1
INTRODUCTION
This is the study of selected sites within the Nigerian
region where adequate archaeological data are available to give
experience in interpretation of Archaeological site reports,
spectacular sites worth examining include Nok, Igbo-Ukwu,
Benin, Ife and the Chad Basin. As a preamble, an in-depth study
of the various prehistoric epochs are considered, such as the
Paleolithic; Neolithic; Agricultural beginning; Iron Age and
Urbanisation.
1.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Arrive at a harmonized or integrated picture of
the prehistory, proto-history and history of the
Nigerian Region through a study of the
archaeological work undertaken to date.
ii.
Outline the aims, methods and achievements
iii.
Throw into focus the main problems to which
future workers would address themselves
iv.
Discuss the questions of archaeology and
prehistory in the educational systems (Museums
teaching programmes etc).
v.
Discuss the study of urban sites and human
settlements with an orientation towards
historical reconstruction
iv.
Deal
with
the
problems
of
applying
archaeological method to historical questions.
1.3
IN-TEXT
1.3.1 THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD
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This is the period when man emerged about 2 ½ to 3
million years ago and lasted through most of the Pleistocene ice
age (8300 BC). The oldest form of man had evolved by the early
Pleistocene (Australopithecus). The Palaeolithic period is divided
into three phases based on the development of man’s economy
and the manufacture and use of tools. The three periods are as
follows:
- Early Stone Age
- Middle Stone Age
- Late Stone Age
1.3.1.1 EARLY STONE AGE
Most tools during this period were made up of bones, wood
and stones. Bones and wood are easily perishable materials,
while stone tools can survive all the harshes of weather. The
earliest stone tools consisted of pebbles which had a crude
chopping and cutting edges, known as the oldowan type tools
after Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. Such tools are found in most
grasslands in Africa. Evidence of oldowan type tools has been
found in Bali on River Taraba.
The Early Stone Age is divided into three phases as follows:
- Oldowan
- Acheulean Industrial Tradition
- Sangoan
The Oldowan: It is named after a type site of Olduvai gorge in
Tanzania.
The characteristics tool of the
oldowan is the “pebble tool”, a hammer stone
and
a
scraper.
Homo
Habilis
and
Australopithecus were the makers of this
culture. The culture may have lasted from 2
million years to 500,000.
The Acheulian: It is named after a type site in Northern France,
St. Acheul.
The Characteristic tool is the
handaxe, a cleaver and round stone balls. A
number of Acheulian sites have been found in
Nigeria around the Jos Plateau such as Mai Idon
Toro and Nok. The culture must have started
from 500,000 years ago with a terminal date of
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HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
55,000.
culture.
The Sangoan:
UNIT: 3
Homo Erectus was the maker of this
It is named after a type site of Sango Bay on
Lake Victoria. This culture has been questioned
by Bassey Wai Ogosu. Bassey Wai Ogosu doubts
whether there was a true Sangoan culture in the
whole of West Africa.
The culture is
characterised by a heavier and cruder tools,
typical is the pick. In Nigeria, the likely areas
with evidence of the Sangoan culture is the old
gravels around Jebba, Abuja, Keffi and
Nassarawa areas to the south of the Jos plateau,
along the Sokoto River, and Ibadan-Abeokuta
Road. Homo Sapiens were probably the makers
of this culture. The culture spans from 55,000
and 40,000 years ago. The Sangoan industrial
complex adapts more to a wooded area than the
open savannah.
1.3.1.2 THE MIDDLE STONE AGE
This term evolved in Southern Africa where it was used to
describe a group of industrial complexes with a span 35,000 12,000 BC. The industries here were located in wooded areas
surrounding the equatorial forests. The characteristics of the
tool is the point (Lanceolate) were hafted and used as spears.
Other tools include core axes and chisels. The type-sites in
Nigeria include Afikpo in Eastern Nigeria, and Jos Plateau. The
maker of this culture was probably Homo sapien.
1.3.1.3 THE LATE STONE AGE
This period was remarkable for the production of tiny tools
called “microliths,” usually slotted into arrow shafts to form
points and barbs. Typical sites are Mejiro Cave, near old Oyo,
Rock Shelter on the Jos Plateau, Iwo Eleru near Akure, Ukpa
Rock shelter near Afikpo. In the North East region of Nigeria,
the example of the Late Stone Age sites include Kursakata,
Daima, Mege and Ndufu. The Late Stone Age population of the
areas mentioned above were cattle keepers and growers of
sorghum (guinea corn). They had pottery and they sourced their
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stones from areas afar for production of ground stone axes and
grinding stones for food production. They were engaged in the
produclton of small fired clay models of animals and sometimes
human beings depicting prehistoric arts. They buried their dead
in crouched position closed to the settlement. This civilisation
has an antiquity of 3000 years.
1.4
SUMMARY
It highlighted the various phases of the Stone Age and the
makers of the various cultures with the span of their antiquity.
1.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
1.6
Identify the various industrial complexes of the
Palaeolithic period.
REFERENCES
Balfour, H. (1934) Occurrence of Cleavers of Lower
Palaeolithic in Northern Nigeria. Man. 25
Clark,
J.
D.
(1982)
Cultures
of
the
Middle
Palaeolithic/middle Stone Age.
The
Cambridge History of Africa Vol. I.
Jemkur, J. F. (188). The prehistory of Northern Nigeria
Studies, in Nigerian Culture I. Zaria.
Gaskiya Press.
Ogosui-wai, B. W. (1973) was there a sangoan Industry in
West Africa. West African Journal of
Archaeology 3:191-96.
Ozanne, P. (1964) Stone Axes. West African Archaeological
Newsletter 1.
1.7
SUGGESTED READING
Rosenfeld, A. (1972) The Microlithic Industries of Rop Rock
Shelter. West African Journal of Archaeology 2:17-28.
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Shaw, T. (1978) Nigeria: its Archaeology and Early History,
London: Thames and Hudson.
Soper, R. (1965) The Stone Age in Northern Nigeria. Journal
of the Historical Society of Nigeria 3(2):
1975-94.
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T O P I C 2:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
2.0
TOPIC:
THE AGRICULTURAL BEGINNINGS -
2.1
INTRODUCTION -
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2.2
OBJECTIVES
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2.3
IN-TEXT
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2.3.1
THE AGRICULTURAL BEGINNINGS
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2.3.2
ANIMAL SOURCES OF FOOD
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2.4
SUMMARY -
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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2.6
REFERENCES
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SUGGESTED READING
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2.0
TOPIC: AGRICULTURAL BEGINNING
2.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
This course examines the history of beginning of
agriculture and the evidence available both for plants and
animals which manifests themselves in archaeological
record.
2.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Identify the various evidence for both plants and
animals.
ii.
Identify some of the African cereals which are
indigenous to Africa.
2.3
IN-TEXT:
2.3.1
AGRICULTURAL BEGINNING
Many theories and speculations abound for the beginning
and development of Agriculture in Africa. The lack of evidence
in Africa about agricultural origins compared with other parts of
the world resulted into a number of theoretical models. The
concept of “Neolithic revolution” was introduced by Gordon
Childe in terms of simple diffusion by movement of people and
agricultural products. Some scholars are of the opinion that
agriculture evolved once at a specific location and diffused to
other areas; while some see agriculture evolving in different
locations probably at the same time or at different times.
Whatever the views expressed by the various school of thoughts,
the change from dependence on hunting, fishing and gathering
wild fruits/plants to crop raising and cattle rearing is a very
significant revolution ever achieved by man in the last ten
thousand years. Agricultural beginning radically changed man’s
capacity in controlling his environment. It made sedentary life
possible, and also the storage of food, the accumulation of
wealth which led to the division of labour and social
stratification. In considering the beginning and development of
food production and domestication of animals, we have to
consider the types of evidence available.
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The Evidence: The different kinds of evidence both for food
production and the domestication of animals are
as follows:
a. Direct archaeological evidence: are the remains of
domesticated plants and animals in context.
b. Indirect archaeological evidence: are all materials
discovered in archaeological context that suggests the
presence of plants and animals eg. rock paintings and
terracotta representation.
c. Evidence
provided
by
botanical,
stocks
breeding
ethnographic and linguistic studies.
2.3.1.1 DIRECT BOTANICAL EVIDENCE
Direct archaeological evidence for food of botanical origin
includes the finding in datable context of actual remains of seed,
fruit, root or tree crops, their pollen or impressions of them on
pottery. These products are sometimes by accident preserved as
a result of aridity, water logging, or they are preserved in human
or animal coprolites. There is little direct evidence for the early
cultivation of crops in Africa. Egypt and the Sahara recorded
direct evidence for the cultivation of crops from 6000BC to 4000
of Pennisetum (pearl) millet, bulrush (millet) and Triticum
(wheat). In Nigeria, direct evidence of sorghum bicolor was
obtained at Daima (N.E. Nigeria) from 9/10 century A.D. The
carbonised grains at Daima represent the oldest guinea corn yet
found in West Africa. Charred remains of domesticated
pennisetum grains was found in Kursakata.
2.3.1.2 INDIRECT BOTANICAL EVIDENCE
Indirect botanical evidence could be inferred from the
presence of certain technological traits such as pottery and
ground stone axes. The presence of grinding stones and quern
fragments have been taken as demonstrating the practice of
agriculture in some parts of Africa. In Nigeria, examples of
indirect evidence of a teeth of the skeleton from Rop Rock
shelter is said to be of an agriculturalist. The Kotoko, living
south of Lake Chad, regard Pennisetum as their oldest kind of
food grain. It is also assumed that the first known iron-users in
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Sub-Saharan Africa, the Nok people, were agriculturists because
of the presence of two terracotta, which represent fluted
pumpkins.
Yam cultivation may be ancient in West Africa. It has been
suggested that the Sangoan Pick may have been a tool for
grubbing up wild species, from which practice natural vegetative
reproduction localised around living places, might have resulted.
It is typical of yam to regenerate after the removal of the tuber if
too much damage is not done to the vine and roots. Thus ancient
hunter-gatherers would have accustomed to the idea of returning
to the same spot for a source of food. In support for early
domestication of yam. Coursey (1967), points to the prohibition
in certain areas of the use of iron tools for digging of yams in
new yam festivals, which strongly suggests that yam cultivation
antedates the commencement of iron age. Posnansky (1969)
suggested that the West African Yam began between 2500 and
1500BC.
Some of the African cereals (Crops) which are indigenous
to Africa are: Sorghum, Pearl Millet, finger millet, African rice
and fonio (Hungry rice).
2.3.2 ANIMAL SOURCES OF FOOD
Direct evidence of animal husbandry is often preserved in
Archaeological record in the form of bones of domesticated
animals or wild cattle.
2.3.2.1 DIRECT EVIDENCE
Gajiganna, a site in Borno proved to have evidence of flocks
mainly of cattle and goats Gajiganna is one of the earliest sites
with domesticated animals in West Africa, south of the Sahara.
Excavation at the Rop rock shelter in Northern Nigeria have
yielded a single equid tooth dated to over 2000bp. At Kariya
Wuro, a rock shelter near Bauchi four equid teeth were found
having the some age with that of Rop.
2.3.2.2 INDIRECT EVIDENCE
This is demonstrated in the form of rock arts (Paintings
and engravings) or in the form of terracotta, or undatable
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skeletons. Rock paintings of cattle at Birnin Kudu depicted long
and short horned humpless cattle not dated.
In Borno, at Gajiganna, animal figurines mostly incomplete
figures represented cattle. The small clay figurines of Gajiganna
represent the oldest prehistoric art of Borno, with an antiquity
of between 2700 and 3100bp.
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2.4
UNIT: 3
SUMMARY
It defined the concept of Neolithic revolution and the
achievement man had made in the last ten thousand years.
It portrayed the various evidences for both plants and
animals.
2.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
2.6
What are the direct and indirect evidences of the
beginning of Agriculture in West Africa?
REFERENCES
Harlan, JH. R. de wet J. M. J. and Stemler, A. (1976) (eds)
Origins of African Plant Domestication
Morgan, W. B. (1962) The Forest and Agriculture in West
Africa. Journal of African History 3(2): 235-39.
Porteres, R. (1976) African Cereals. In Harlan et al. Origins
of African Plant Domestication. The Hague.
2.7
SUGGESTED READING
Porteres, R. and Barrare, J. (1981) Origins, Development
and Expansion of Agricultural Technique, In. J. K
Zerbo (ed) UNESCO General History of Africa. Vol. I
Heinemann.
Posnansky, M. (1969) Yams and the Origins of West African
Agriculture, ODU 1: 101-7.
Davies, O. (1968) The Origins of Agriculture in West Africa.
Current Anthropology 9:479-82
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T O P I C 3:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
3.0
TOPIC:
3.1
INTRODUCTION-
3.2
OBJECTIVES
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3.3
IN-TEXT
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3.3.1
THE IRON AGE -
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3.3.2
EARLY METAL USING COMMUNITIES-
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3.3.3
METHODS OF COPPER WORKING
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3.3.4
METHODS OF IRON WORKING
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3.3.5
SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC
SIGNIFICANCE OF METAL WORKING -
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DECLINE OF IRON SMELTING IN AFRICA
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3.3.6
3.4
SUMMARY -
3.5
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REFERENCES
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3.0
TOPIC: THE IRON AGE
3.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
This course introduces the student to one of the epochs in
prehistory which man had attained which led to successful
agriculture and urbanization.
3.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
The early metal using communities of West Africa.
ii.
Determine the significance of iron working.
3.3
IN-TEXT:
3.3.1
THE IRON AGE
The Stone Age is carefully, delineated from the iron age
because the appearance of iron in their assemblages of artefacts
makes an obvious change in technology. As the knowledge of
iron smelting became more widespread and iron cheaper, it had
an effect in a greater capacity for bush and forest clearing for
agriculture.
Presently there are three schools of thought as regards the
origin of African iron working as follows:
1. The diffusionist
2. The indigenous
3. The cautious
This issue is debated by scholars like Andah (1979) and
Phillipson (1985:148-186). To a certain extent both entertained
the idea of independent development of African Iron working.
They observed that more rigorous work still needs to be done.
For this reason, Andah recorded that not enough is yet known
about who? When? with whom iron working began in West
Africa? For one to assert positively that the knowledge of the
process was transmitted from outside, Phillipson (1985) on his
part notes, that the first point is that the knowledge of iron
working can no longer be assumed to have been brought to West
Africa from the North.
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Today because of the providence of TL dating more has been
known about the origins of iron working in most parts of Africa.
3.3.2 EARLY METAL USING COMMUNITIES
Excavation of Rop Rock shelter on the Jos Plateau indicates
that there was a continuity of occupation from Late Stone Age to
early Iron Age. Daima is the only site where there is a clearly
established continuity of occupation from Late Stone Age to
Early Iron Age. The first appearance of Iron at Daima is now
placed between 5th or 6th Centuries AD. During this period the
use of stone and bone tools seemed to have died out. The Iron
using communities were agriculturalists as evidenced by the
presence of carbonized sorghum. Making of clay figurines of
cows and the construction of a near permanent habitation of
huts of mud was their preoccupation. They also used objects of
adornment like bronze ornaments, stone lip plugs, and beads.
One of the Earliest Iron Age culture yet known in West
Africa is that of the Nok valley located to the west of Jos Plateau.
It extended as far south as Katsina Ala, Ankiring and Kagara. It
was characterised by terracotta figurines mostly heads of human
beings - the classic example being the Jema’a head. Other Nok
artefacts include iron axe blades, tin beads, pieces of iron
smelting furnaces, iron slag and tuyeres.
There were also representations in terracotta of animals
like elephants, monkeys and snake heads, some of which have
ornamented the rims of pottery.
By the latter part of the 1st millennium B.C., there were
settled agricultural communes at Samun Dukiya, in Central
Nigeria, smelting their iron and producing works of art of
terracotta. Materials recovered from this site include grinding
stone, fragments of iron, stone bead and figurines.
Taruga is another Nok culture settlement site southeast of
Abuja. The settlement possessed several smelting furnace and
associated with it were iron slag, tuyeres charcoal, terracotta
figurine fragments, a number of iron objects. A radio carbon for
the site yielded 4th/5th centuries B.C - the oldest date for iron
smelting so far known in West Africa.
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Rescue excavation has revealed the existence of iron using
communities or iron using communities at least before the end
of the 1st millennium BC in the Kainji area (e.g. Kagoge, Baha,
Barichi, Rs 63/32 near Yelwa). The people herded domestic
animals and made glass and stone beads, pottery vessels and
clay figurines. They also made great use of iron objects like
knives, axes, fish hooks, spears and arrows for farming, fishing
and hunting.
Copper working or bronze and brass casting is distributed
in ancient times over a wide area of West Africa. The Igbo-Ukwu
bronzes dating between 9th and 11th century AD are stylistically
different from those of Ife and Benin. The Igbo Ukwu bronzes
are a large collection of objects consisting of regalia of an
important personality and objects from a shrine. The objects
were manufactured using two techniques - cire Perdue technique
(lost wax method) and by smithing. Spectrographic analysis
indicates that the objects produced by casting were made from
leaded bronze with varying amount of tin and lead. The objects
produced by smithing were made of pure copper.
Ife objects were made of copper alloyed with zinc with
relatively high quantity of lead. Few objects were made of
copper. The Ife brasses have been dated to around the 12th to
14th century A.D.
Benin Possessed a large number of objects numbering over
2000 mostly of brass dated to about 13th century AD.
Few bronze objects were found in the Middle Niger villages
of Jebba, Tada and Giragi. The objects are of mixed artistic
styles.
3.3.3 METHODS OF COPPER WORKING
Most West African bronze and brass objects were
manufactured by casting (the pouring of molten metals into
moulds). One method of casting is the open mould or bivalve. A
bivalve consists of two halves of a stone, clay or metal mould
pegged together.
The space between the two halves of the mould possesses the
shape of the object being cast. After the metal has cooled, the
mould is opened. Another technique of casting is the cire Perdue
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or lost wax. In this case a model of the object required is made
in wax. The model is covered with clay and the whole is then
heated to allow the wax to melt and run off.
This leaves a space in to which molten metal is poured.
After it has cooled the outside clay is knocked off, the inner core
may be removed and remaining is a metal version of the original
wax model. Copper can also be worked by smithing and chasing,
unalloyed copper can easily be shaped by hammering, bending,
twisting and annealing either hot or cold.
3.3.4 METHODS OF IRON WORKING
In prehistoric times, the production of iron was done using
the furnace. Iron was produced in many parts of West Africa,
with the smelters using different types of furnaces. Shaft
furnaces in the Taruga areas, the Dome furnace in the Idoma
areas, the pit or bowl furnace in Lejja, near Nsukka. In these
furnaces iron is in contact or mixed with charcoal. The charcoal
which is carbon burns and combines with oxygen from the air to
form the gas carbon monoxide. This hot gas passes up through
the furnace and reacts with the iron oxide by removing or
reducing deposited iron. The reduction of iron oxide to a spongy
mass called bloom takes place at a temperature of 700c. This
iron bloom consists of mass of iron particles and slag. The smith
later consolidates this mass of iron particles by heating and
hammering it together.
3.3.4.1 SMITHING
Smithing in West Africa is characterised by the following a
forge, a fire point, an anvil, bellows and a mud wall constructed in
front of the fire point and behind the tuyere. Fire making is
important in the whole process. The effectiveness of forging will
depend solely on the ability of the blacksmith to ensure adequate
supply of heat. The controlling factor in fire making is the
bellow. The anvil acts as a support upon which the red-hot iron
is fashioned to the desired shape. Black smiths usually make use
of two types of hammers; the sledge and flattening hammers.
The sledge hammer is used to hammer the red hot iron to the
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desired shape and thickness, while the flattening hammers give
smooth surface finish to the object produced. Forging of iron
objects appear uniform among different groups of blacksmiths in
West Africa.
3.3.5 SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF METAL WORKING
Metal objects had religious and ritual significance in West
African societies. For example iron tools were used in the burial
of chiefs in some areas. In Yorubaland there are temples or
shrines for Ogun in the palaces of obas. The Ogun Ladi Shrine is
still preserved at the Afin (palace) of the Oni of Ife. In Benin
monumental heads and free standing figures were cast to take
their place in shrines to royal ancestors. Some bronzes and iron
objects fulfilled artistic and decorative purposes.
Metal
implements have also served political purposes. Implements
such as swords, spears and matchets have been used by rulers of
early West Africa states and kingdom to prosecute wars.
3.3.6 DECLINE OF IRON SMELTING IN AFRICA
The earliest explanation for the decline of African iron
smelting centred around trade models whereby imported
European metal goods were seen as superior and as such caused
the decline of African iron working. Some scholars attributed the
demise of the industry more to deforestation effects. The
industry made huge demands on hardwoods, very difficult to
regenerate.
In conclusion, it may be observed that the use of iron
implement was basically an improvement on the age long use of
wood, stone and bone implements. Iron implements were much
stronger and more effective. The use of iron implements led to
the improvements in the methods and techniques of farming,
hunting and fishing.
3.4
SUMMARY
It potrays the importance of iron, how it evolved and the earlier
societies where it made its impact.
3.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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1.
3.6
UNIT: 3
What is the contrast between smelting and smithing?
REFERENCES
Ankell,
A.
J. (1953) Iron in Africa. South Africa
Archaeological Bulletin 8: 52-57
Andah, B. W. (1979) Iron Age Beginnings in West Africa:
Reflections and Suggestion, West African Journal of
Archaeology Vol.9
Davies O. 1966 Comment on “The Iron Age in Sub-Saharan
Africa” Current Anthropology 7:470-1.
_________ (1967) West Africa Before the Europeans.
London Methuen.
Dixey, (1920) Primitive Iron Ore smelting Methods in West
Africa. Mining Magazine 32:213-16.
Kense, F. J. (1983) Traditional African Iron working,
African occasional Papers No.1 University of
Calgary.
3.7
SUGGESTED READING
Oliver, R. and Fagan, The Appearance of Iron and its use in
Protohistoric Africa. London.
Sassoon, H. (1963) Early Sources of Iron in Africa, South
African Archaeological Bulletin. 3:210-24.
Shinnie, P. L. (1971) The African Iron Age. Oxford:
Clarendon.
Sulton, J. E. G. (1976) Iron working around Zaria, Zaria
Archaeology paper. Viii.
Triger, R. (1969) The Myth of Meroe and the African Iron
Age. African Historical Studies.
Tylecote, R. F. (1975) The Origin of Iron smelting in Africa
West African Journal of Archaeology 5.
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Williams, D. (1969) African Iron and the Classical World.
Phillipson D. W. (1985) African Archaeology Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
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T O P I C 4:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
4.0
TOPIC:
4.1
INTRODUCTION
4.2
OBJECTIVES
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4.3
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URBANIZATION -
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4.3.2
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
4.4
SUMMARY -
4.5
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URBANIZATION-
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4.7
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4.0
TOPIC: URBANIZATION
4.1
INTRODUCTION
This topic outlines the various definitions of
urbanization, specifically identifying traits which made
a place as urbanized.
4.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Identify the various traits of urbanization.
ii.
Some of the archaeological evidence of urban sites.
4.3
IN-TEXT:
4.3.1
URBANIZATION
There has been a long debate among scholars as to what
constitutes urbanisation. When does one label a settlement as
urban? Why was only a particular settlement among many
become urbanised? What is the distinction between a city and
town? These are some of the questions which puzzled scholars
for many years. The most popular definition in the first half of
this century was that of Louis Wirth (1938) who defined a city as
a relatively dense and permanent settlement of socially
heterogeneous individuals. The British archaeologist, V. Gordon
childe in his paper “ Urban Revolution” (1950) spelt out ten
criteria which he used not only to define urban but also
civilisation as a whole. He claimed that these criteria were
deducible from archaeological record and that it was when all
these were met that one could consider a settlement as truly
urban.
The traits include density of population, full time
specialisation, surplus food, monumental architecture, political
authority, writing, cylindrical and mathematical sciences, art,
raw materials and regular foreign trade. It is significant that
most of these criteria were based on Childe’s experience of the
near east.
Unfortunately, until fairly recent scholars dealing with
urban problems could not rid themselves of the Euro-American
situation, largely from the results of industrialisation, which
was seen by many as the only cause of urban development.
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Many carried this narrow view point to the extent that they
concluded that Africa had no urban tradition.
Recent
archaeological, historical, and sociological evidences are clearly
showing that Africa, like any other continent, had early urban
centres which did not originate from industrialisation
One distinctive feature of the conceptualisation of towns
and cities as units of settlement which perform specialised
functions of an economic nature in relation to a broader
hinterland is the assumption that urban settlements were made
possible with the emergence of farming and metal working or
farming and trade. Connah (1987) argues that the West Africa
environment as a whole and in particular the savannah provided
condition conducive to the development of a complex network of
trade. He thinks it quite likely that such trading activity was
almost as old as West African food production and may date
back to about 3000 years ago.
Mabogunje on the other hand, defined urbanisation simply
as the process whereby human beings congregate in relatively
large number at one particular spot of the earth surface. He
rejected the ethnocentric notions that the presence of writing or
the absence of agricultural workers can be used to distinguished
between those communities that are urbanised and those that
are not. By his definition we can see the origins of urbanisation
in the Lake Chad area in the 12th century A.D. and some by the
late 15th century. There were urban centres west of the lake.
These included Birnin Gazargamu, Kazarma, Mintur, Yedi, Kule
and Marte.
4.3.2 THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
For many years it has been assumed that much of the
impetus for the development of complex West African societies
came from outside stimulation of the indigenous economy in the
Lake Chad area. About the 8th century A.D Trans-North Africans
initiated the trans-Saharan trade for gold and slaves from SubSaharan regions. During the past decade excavation and
radiocarbon dating have revealed evidence of complex social
stratification, long distance trade and even urbanisation in West
Africa by the middle of the 1st millennium A.D.
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Kanem-Bornu had its foundation in the first millennium
A.D Around 12th century AD. In the course of time the empire
expanded and by about 14th century A.D. it was weakened due
mainly to dynastic problems and civil wars which led the
removal of the capital from Njimi to Birnin Gazargamo. The most
famous early urban centre in present North Eastern part of
Nigeria was Birnin Gazargamo founded in 1470 AD and
abandoned by 1803 AD after its destruction by the Jihadist.
The firki settlement site of Daima contains evidence of
occupation which spans from the Late Stone Age to Iron Age.
This evidence therefore suggests that the area was occupied for
almost 1,700 years.
Kano has one of the largest concentration of iron smelting
sites in Africa, associated with a wealth of walled settlements
which represent different stages of urban development. One of
the oldest known blacksmith ward are of Kutumbawa origin
whose ancestors were of the same groups with the Habe rulers
of Kano before the Jihad. There were also a group of blacksmiths
around Dala Hill where the first blacksmith settled.
Zaria an ancient city, is located among series of inselberg
mostly favourable as a fertile agricultural land and it served
some defensive advantages. Turuku was the seat of the ancient
state of Zazzau.
Ancient Ife represents the first order of political
centralisation over the area of Yorubaland dated between AD
900 and 1500. Ife was an excellent site for a major commercial
and agricultural centre.
We can conclude from archaeological and historical data
that the beginning of urbanisation and state formation cannot be
attributed to a single factor but to various factors or
combinations of factors such as geographical, economic, political
social and military factors.
4.4
SUMMARY
The topic portrayed some of the early urban sites in West
Africa.
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4.5
UNIT: 3
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
2.
Define Urbanization
Identify three traits which V. Gordon childe used in
defining urbanism and civilization
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UNIT: 3
REFERENCE
Cannah, G. (1987) African Civilization, Pre-Colonial Cities
And States In Tropical Africa: An Archaeological Perspective.
Cambridge University Press.
Childe, V.G. (1936) Man Makes Himself. London: C:A.
Watts.
Childe, V.G. (1942) What happened in History. London:
Penguin Books.
4.7
SUGGESTED READING
Bassey W. Andah (1995) The Epistemology of West
African Settlements. Special issue of West African Journal
of Archaeology Vol. 25 No. 1.
Chang, K.C. (1968) Settlement Archaeology. Palo Alto Calif,
National Press Books.
Clark, D. (1982) Urban Geography. Baltimore, John
Hopkins University Press.
Mabogunje, A.L. (1968) Urbanization in Nigeria. University
of London Press, London.
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T O P I C 5:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
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TOPIC:
NOK CULTURE IN PREHISTORY-
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5.1
INTRODUCTION
5.2
OBJECTIVES
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5.3
IN-TEXT
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5.3.1
NOK CULTURE IN PREHISTORY- -
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5.3.2
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION
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5.3.3
DESCRIPTION OF THE NOK FIGURINES-
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5.3.4
FUNCTION OF THE TERRACOTTA
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5.3.5
RELATIONSHIP OF NOK ARTS AND OTHER
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SUMMARY -
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REFERENCES
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SUGGESTED READING
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TOPIC: NOK CULTURE IN PREHISTORY
5.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
This is the study of a specific site in Northern Nigeria
where terra cotta-figurines were revealed as a result of tin
mining operations. It is with the prevalence of such finds
that the culture is named “Nok Culture”.
5.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
Understand what is meant by Nok Culture.
ii.
It’s Characteristics.
iii. It’s antiquity.
iv.
Its place in Nigerian History.
5.3
IN-TEXT:
5.3.1 NOK CULTURE IN PREHISTORY
The Nok culture was discovered in 1928 as a result of tin
mining operation. The finds from the site revealed an early iron
age population at a village called Nok where they were first
found. The remains consist of terracotta figurines. The first
terracotta figurine discovered was that of the head of a monkey
which was deposited at the mines’ Museum in Jos by Col. J. D.
Young. That discovery remained unique until 1943 when another
terracotta head was discovered in Jema’a at Tsauni. Mr. Bernard
Fagg, who was appointed Government Archaeologist, inspected
the tin mining areas and a number of figurines and other
archaeological objects were rescued and this formed the basis of
the Jos Museum.
Fagg made his first publication on the
terracotta in 1945 where he categorised them into “The Nok
series” and “the Jema’a series”. It was observed that the
figurines were made of clay mixed with small grains of quartz
and silica derived from the surrounding hills and the Jos plateau.
From 1947 to 1951 several discoveries of the terracotta figurines
were made at Nok proper, Wamba and Tsauni.
5.3.2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION
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The terracotta figurines were found greatly concentrated
around Nok and Jema’a. The distribution radiated to all
directions. It reached Katsina Ala in the South East including
Ankiring, Jema’a, Tare and Wamba. In the South is Udegi is
directly south, while in the South-West, are Bwari, Kawu,
Samban, Shere Koro and Taruga. In the West and North-West are
Kuchamfa, Kutofo and Kagara, while Kachia is on the
Northernmost point and Amban and Maitumbi are in the East.
5.3.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE NOK FIGURINES
The figurines were all modelled in clay. The Nok figurines
are hollow and coil-built and reworked from the outside. The
fabric consists of clay with grain of mica, quartz or granite. The
height of the Nok terracotta varies from 10cm to 120cm. The
majority of the terracotta represent human heads and figures;
and several representations of parts of animals such as elephant
head, monkey head, and several snakes.
Other finds from the Nok culture include polished stone
axes and adzes, probably meant for wood carving before the
introduction of iron to the area. Grindstones were common
suggestive of the use of vegetable food. Tin beads were found in
the deposits of the Nok valley. Quartz beads and domestic
pottery were also found in the deposits of the Nok Valley.
5.3.4 FUNCTIONS OF THE TERRACOTTA
At the moment scholars are not very sure about the
functions of the terracottas. Since we do not have direct
association with the prehistoric populations who made them, we
can only speculate about their functions. It must be noted that
their functions may differ from place to place.
It is possible that the figurines could have been used as
thatch finials of round huts, those having circulars bases like an
inverted pot would have been well suited for this purpose. This
practice is still current with the Gbagyi and Ham ethnic groups
within the Nok culture area. Investigation among the above
ethnic groups indicate that they are used as thatch finials to
indicate huts which are shrines to which women and uninitiated
young men do not go close to. In some dwelling huts they are
used for decorations on newly thatched huts.
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The association of terracottas with iron smelting furnaces
at Taruga would suggest a magico-religious link which certainly
accompanies the technical procedure for a successful smelt. Iron
smelting is hazardous job, and the terracotta could have served
as a protection. The terracottas could also have been used as
grave goods or personal offerings for the dead. This practice
was common among the Dakarkari and Mumuye groups until
recently.
5.3.5 RELATIONSHIP OF NOK ARTS AND OTHER CULTURES.
Most Archaeologists and Art historians are of the view that
the Nok art may be ancestral to some of the former art traditions
found in Central Nigeria. Many of the terracottas rest on
upturned pots, a form which is still found in Thatch finials
among the Jaba and other ethnic groups within the Nok culture
area today. The Nok terracotta and that of Ife are similar in that
they were often adorned with elaborate beadwork; and what is
most importantly about them that they are the only two ancient
styles of terracotta sculpture known to date in Africa ever to
attempt to represent human beings approaching life size.
5.4
SUMMARY
The chapter portrays the discovery of the Nok Culture and
how they were delineated in the two series. It also
examines its relationship with other cultures within the
region.
5.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1. When was Nok culture discovered?
2. What were the characteristics trait of the Nok
culture?
5.6
REFERENCES
J. F. Jemkur, (1992) Aspects of the Nok Culture A.B.U. Press
Ltd. Zaria.
Fagg, A. (1970) Aspects of the Nok Culture West African
Archaeological Newsletter 12:80-81
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5.7
UNIT: 3
SUGGESTED READING
Fagg, B. E. B. (1959) The Nok Culture in Prehistory, Journal
of the Historical Society of Nigeria 4:288-93.
________ (1969) Recent Work in West Africa, A new light
on the Nok Culture. World Archaeology 1:41-49.
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T O P I C 6:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
6.0
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6.1
INTRODUCTION
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6.2
OBJECTIVES
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6.3
IN-TEXT
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6.3.1
IGBO-UKWU IN PREHISTORY
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6.3.2
BRONZED -
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6.3.3
THE BURIAL CHAMBER
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6.3.4
ANTIQUITY OF IGBO FINDS
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6.4
SUMMARY -
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REFERENCES
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SUGGESTED READING
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TOPIC: IGBO-UKWU IN PREHISTORY
6.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
A specific accidental site discovered in South Eastern
Nigeria was igbe Ukwu, revealed by someone trying to dig
a cisten in his compound. The igbo – Ukwu finds consist of
several materials in association which act like a
preservative.
6.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Know source of this accidental discoveries in
archeology.
ii.
Know that most sites have been discovered by
laymen.
iii. How materials are preserved.
6.3
IN-TEXT:
6.3.1
IGBO-UKWU IN PREHISTORY
In 1939 a man called Isaiah was digging a cistern in his
compound on the outskirts of Igbo-Ukwu, 125 miles South East of
Onitsha, when he struck on valuable archaeological objects
mostly made up of bronzes. This is also an archaeological
discovery made by a layman, a non-archaeologists.
The most interesting thing about the bronze was the nature
of their style and decoration which was distinct from the bronze
of Benin and Ife.
6.3.2 EXCAVATION
Between 1959 and 1966 Thurstan Shaw was invited to
excavate the Igbo-Ukwu site, assisted by Liman Ciroma. The first
site was Igbo Isaiah’ situated within the compound of Isaiah. In
this compound, as a result of the excavation an iron blade highly
decorated pot set on its own open work stand which was later
recognised as the characteristics ancient Igbo Ukwu ware were
later copied and repeated in a number of bronzes.
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The second site is christened ‘Igbo Richard’ a neighbour
and relative of Isaiah who also reported of strange things in his
compound.
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6.3.3 BRONZES
The contents from the excavation consisted of highly
decorated bronzes such as large bowls, bronze shells,
ornamental bosses, large pendant ornaments, three staff heads,
spiral snake ornaments, scabbard support and other
miscellaneous objects. A number of highly ornamented complete
pots, characterised by deep channelling, were found together
with a large number of beads, mostly of coloured glass, but some
of carnelian. The nature of the bronzes was strongly suggestive
of sacred vessels used for some ceremonial or ritual purpose and
of ornaments and regalia for some important persons.
6.3.4 THE BURIAL CHAMBER
As a result of the excavation at Igbo-Ukwu, roughly about
one meter, a number of pots were found on a pedestal, with their
characteristic of deep grooving, decorated with snakes and some
are of skeuomorphic of basket work. This irregularly pile of pots
probably represented a shrine associated with offerings made to
the spirit of the dignitary buried in the gives burial chamber. A
peculiar feature of this shrine was that among the pots and
broken pots-herds were a larger number of pieces of pottery
which had been rubbed down to a special shape. There were
some 1500 of these little pottery pegs in the shrine perhaps they
represented votive offerings of some kind.
Royalty was depicted in some of the contents of the
excavation. Three ivory tusks, possibly carved as horns in
association with copper bosses, close to a human skull
surrounded with beads was obtained. The skull was also
associated with a decorated pectoral plate, a crown with several
ornaments which concussively was a burial chamber of someone
of great social importance. The chamber was lined up with
traces of matting and textiles in contact with some of the copper
objects. By noticing carefully the positions of the bones and all
the other objects it was possible to conclude that the corpse had
been buried in sitting positions upon a stool, the arms supported
by the copper brackets and fan-holder and a fly switch set in its
hands, richly dressed in beads surmounted by a crown and a
pectoral plate on the chest. Close by were the remains of at least
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five individuals perhaps slaves buried to accompany their lord in
the next world.
6.3.5 ANTIQUITY OF IGBO-UKWU FINDS
At one time it was said that the Igbo-Ukwa finds could not
be very old because of the presence of textiles. But this is not
necessarily true because textile in close association with copper
objects inhibits termite and bacterial activity, which have acted
as a preservative.
Some of the wood from the stool decoreated with copper
bosses from the burial chamber in Igbo Richard was used for
radio carbon dating and yielded a date of AD 850 + 120.
Charcoal from Igbo Jonah yielded a date of AD 875 + 130. This
mean the Igbo Ukwu finds were dated to around 9th century AD.
6.4
SUMMARY
The Igbo-Ukwu fonds have posed several questions, some
remained unanswered. There were several combinations of
materials, some modes in nature, albeit gave a date of 9th
AD.
6.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
6.6
Was Igbo-Ukwu discovered through systematic
means? Discuss this in the Light of its discovery.
REFERENCES
Thurstan Shaw, (1977) Unearthing Igbo Ukwu, Oxford
University, Ibadan.
6.7
SUGGESTED READING
__________________ (1970) A Account of Archaeological
Discoveries in Eastern Nigeria. London 2Vols.
Lawal, B. (1973) Dating Problems at Igbo Ukwu, Journal of
African History, 14:1-8
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T O P I C 7:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
7.0
TOPIC: BENIN IN PREHISTORY-
33
7.1
INTRODUCTION
34
7.2
OBJECTIVES
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7.3
IN-TEXT
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7.3.1
BENIN IN PREHISTORY
--
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34
7.3.2
THE CIRE PERDUE TECHNOLOGY
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35
7.3.3
THE BENIN CITY WALL
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35
7.3.4
IFE CLARKS QUARTERS EXCAVATION-
7.4
SUMMARY -
7.5
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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7.6
REFERENCES
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7.7
SUGGESTED READING
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7.0
TOPIC: BENIN IN PREHISTORY
7.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
This chapter revealed the various sources for Benin
History. It potrays the technique of cire pesdue technique
of smelting metals.
7.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Know the Ife-Benin relationship.
ii.
Know the smelting technique.
iii. The importance of the Benin city wall.
7.3
IN-TEXT:
7.3.1
BENIN IN PREHISTORY
The sources for the history of Benin is made up of
travellers records, oral tradition, art history and archaeology.
Little is known about the earliest history of Benin. Some
historians indicate that its beginnings date from about 11th
century AD. Some historians also ascribe development within
Benin to be exotic. There are suggestions that the Bini absorbed
some Sudanic elements. There are traditions of doubtful
antiquity, which say that they came originally from Egypt via
Sudan and Ife and arrived Benin and claimed that it had already
been inhabited by people who came from the Sudan.
Historically, Benin is important because its development
centred around a major urban unit ruled by a semi-divine king.
It had an iron working technology and cire Perdue casting
tradition second to none. From travellers’ records they had
bronzes and horses used as status symbols. Benin architecture
was also remarkable. Some scholars indicated that it had
influence from the North.
In an attempt to comprehend the prehistory of Benin the
following issues should be examined:
1. Ife - Benin Relationship
2. The Cire Perdue Technology
3. The Benin City wall
4. The Clarks Quarters Excavation
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As a result of British punitive expedition against Benin in
1897, numerous art works were looted and sold off in London.
European scholars and artists were impressed by the skilled
artistic excellence and attributed the skilled craftsmanship to
the Portuguese who traded along the west cost of Africa between
the 15th and early 17thcentury AD. Later writers have rejected
this view and emphasised the indigenous origin of the art works.
Scholars have now discovered that both the Oranmiyan dynasty
and the art of cire Perdue casting have been said to have come to
Benin from Ife. The evidence for this relationship consists of
oral tradition recorded in Benin in modern times. It is also said
that the traditions of both Ife and Benin record that the head of
each Oba of Benin was sent to Ife for burial. The place where
the burial took place is identified with Orun Oba Ado RC dated to
the 9th or 10th century AD.
7.3.2 THE CIRE PERDUE TECHNOLOGY
Cire Perdue casting technology was extensively used in
Benin. Excavation at Benin reveal items made up of leaded brass
which is more suitable for casting. Its antiquity can be as late as
15th century for details on process of Cire Perdue casting refer to
Igbo-Ukwu.
7.3.3 BENIN CITY WALL
Many cities and towns in Nigeria were at one time in the
past enclosed by walls which reflect a great deal of the town’s
past character, changing fortunes and military outlook. In most
of the walls ditches were excavated to prevent enemies crossing
over into the centre of the town. There is an earthen rampart.
The standing walls belong to the North while dump ramparts are
obtained in the south. Thus Kano, Zaria, Bida and Bauchi have
built walls whereas Ife, Owu and Benin City have “dump
ramparts.” The basic reason for the difference is likely
climatically. There is plenty of rainfall in and around Benin City
while Kano, Bida and Bauchi are in the Savannah with relatively
little rainfall. Free standing mud walls in any form do not
survive long in the south. At Birnin Gazargamu there is a dump
ramparts probably because the loose sand of that site offered
insufficient materials for the construction of such a large
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enclosure in mud brick. The Benin city walls have been known
since 1500.
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7.3.4 IFE CLARKS QUARTERS EXCAVATION
Excavation conducted in this site revealed a stratified
sequence of 11 feet deep. The antiquity of the site is 13th century
AD. At a shaft excused skeletons of 41 individuals through
anatomical examination were mainly female of an age between
15 and 35 years. With them were bronze bracelets, fragments of
clothing and few beads.
7.4
SUMMARY
Archaeological areas mapped in Benin were excavated and
dated.
7.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
7.6
What are the sources for Benin history?
REFERENCES
Balfour, H. (1903) “Thunder Bolts” Celts from Benin Man
103.
7.7
SUGGESTED READING
Connah, G.(1963) Archaeological Research in Benin City
1966-1964. Journal of Historical Society of Nigeria. Vol. 2
No.4 pp.465-477
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T O P I C 8:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
8.0
TOPIC: IFE IN PREHISTORY -
37
8.1
INTRODUCTION
38
8.2
OBJECTIVES
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38
8.3
IN-TEXT
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8.3.1
IFE IN PREHISTORY -
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8.4
SUMMARY -
-
8.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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39
8.6
REFERENCES
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-
-
-
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39
8.7
SUGGESTED READING
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39
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8.0
TOPIC: IFE IN PREHISTORY
8.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
Ife, traditionally is behaved by the Yoruba as the centre of
the world, and the world was created there. It served as the
religious centre of the Yoruba. Cire Perdue technology also
formed part of the traditional technology obtained in that
site.
8.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Identify the traits that have Ife and Benin.
ii.
Know that Ife serves as the traditional base of all
Yorubas.
8.3
IN-TEXT:
8.3.1
IFE IN PREHISTORY
Yoruba traditions claim that Ife is the centre of the world
and it was at Ife that the world was created. Since earliest times
Ife has been the religious centre of the Yoruba and centre of
origin of the Yoruba people. Due to some religious affiliations
some Yoruba historians still doubt about Ife been the centre of
origin . Some ascribed their origin to Arabia (Johnson).
Ife first attracted the attention of modern scholars in 1910
to1911 when the German Ethnographer, Leo Frobenius,
discovered ancient artistic tradition in Terracotta and bronze
which included life-size representations of human heads. He
collected in Ife both by purchase and crude excavation. He
thought that he had found traces of a Greek colony on the West
African coast in the 13th century B.C. His discoveries were to
trigger off years of speculation as to the cultural context of Ife
art. Since 1956 archaeologists have been engaged in research in
Ife. This has resulted not only in the collection of more objects
but it was shown that Ife art was a genuine cultural expression
of the early Yoruba people unassisted by outsiders.
Cire Perdue was the method employed in the production of
Ife arts. An important feature revealed through excavation was
the potsherd pavements either laid or edge on.
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Similarly, Daima in Borno has similar architectural
features. Some of the potshards have impressive decorations.
The pavements are dated to 11th or 12th century AD.
One curious feature of the archaeology of Ife is the degree
to which archaeological materials has been found closely
associated with shrines. It is suspected that some of these
objects may indeed have remained in these shrines from time
immemorial.
Around Ife are the remains of town walls in the form of
earthen banks and ditches which are concentric defensive
system.
It has been suggested that the Ife heads were actual
portraits of rulers of Ife and members of their families, based on
ethnographic evidence drawn from Owo (Willet 1967).
The style used in the production of Ife art was argued
among scholars that it was derived from Nok art. It has been
claimed that at least from the point of view of cire Perdue
casting techniques, it was Ife that taught Benin to produce its
master pieces.
8.4
SUMMARY
Ife is the centre of world according to the Yorubas; thus the
centre of tradition and religion.
8.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1. Was there any relationship between Ife and Benin in
prehistory?
2. What was the general conception of the Yoruba as
regard Ife history?
8.6
REFERENCES
Willet, F. (1967) Ife in the history of West African Sculpture,
London
__________ (1971) African Art: an Introduction New York:
Frederick Praeger.
8.7
SUGGESTED READING
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Tompson, L. and Ferguson (eds) Africa in Classical
Antiquity, Ibadan.
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T O P I C 9:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
9.0
TOPIC: ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE CHAD BASIN-
40
9.1
INTRODUCTION
41
9.2
OBJECTIVES
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41
9.3
IN-TEXT
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9.3.1
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE CHAD BASIN- 41
9.4
SUMMARY -
9.5
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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-
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43
9.6
REFERENCES
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-
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9.7
SUGGESTED READING
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9.0
TOPIC: ARCHEOLOGY OF THE CHAD BASIN
9.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
Significant archaeological breau through have been made in
the chad basin, since the Daima excavation by Graham
Connah in 1965-66. the Daima excavation with an antiquity
of 3000 years has now being surpassed by a more aged find
the Dufuna Canoa dating 8,500 years and the date of a
pottery on a sand pit at Konduga dating over 6000 years,
as one of the oldest settlement in West Africa.
9.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Have an idea of the general prehistory of the Chad
basin.
ii.
Identify spectacular finds with a much higher
antiquity.
9.3
IN-TEXT:
9.3.1 ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE CHAD BASIN
The Chad Basin with its huge landmass, served as a
“crossroad” in the centre of Africa with focal points of savannah
routes from east and west together with the Chari Logone route
reaching deep into the Equatorial and Trans-Saharan routes
from the North” (Connah 1975). A number of dynasties and
empires thrived in this region. They maintained close links,
which served political, social and economic purposes. The
unearthing of this vast landmass with the archaeological spade
has yielded important fossilized materials that have assisted in
the reconstruction of the history of the region. Lake Chad is a
surviving remnant of a much larger lake, which at various times
in the past occupied a far greater portion of the internal
drainage basin known as the Chad basin. The Chad basin
extends from the Tibesti mountains in the North to the Mandara
Mountains in the South, from Air in the West to the Ennedi in the
East.
Pioneering Archaeological Work began in the Chad basin in
1857 by the German explorer, a German named Dr. Herinrich
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Barth, who recorded the various mounds at Ndufu. He reported
of massive “Sao pots”, described by R. Cohen as a “spurious
tribal group”. A detailed archaeological observation was
conducted in the Chad region by Boyd Alexander in 1909 when
he described the giant Sao pots at Ngala. In 1921, A. J. Latham,
then a British District Officer at Dikwa, reported of the various
mounds in the vicinity of Dikwa. The archaeological importance
of the Chad basin was brought to limelight in 1957 when A.
Rosman and R. Cohen Excavated at Birnin Ngazargamo. The
work was never published but the materials were deposited at
the Jos Museum. In 1959 A. D. H. Bivar and P. L. Shinnie
conducted an archaeological survey which resulted in the
publication of “Old Kanuri Capitals” (JAH 62).
The most exhaustive archaeological work so far conducted
in the Chad basin which today remains a monumental reference
work, is that of Graham Connah at Daima between 1961 and
1965. The Daima materials have an antiquity of 3000 years
which resulted in the publication of Three thousand years in
Africa: Man and his environment in the Lake Chad region of
Nigeria.
Under the Joint Research Project of the University of
Frankfurt and the University of Maiduguri SFB 268, a number of
sites were surveyed, identified, excavated and dated. This
project, which commenced in 1990 was spearheaded by Prof. Dr.
Peter Breunig of the University of Frankfurt and Abubakar Garba
of the University of Maiduguri and monitored by Musa O.
Hambolu of the National Commission of Monuments and
Museums.
One of the sites excavated include Gajiganna.
Gajiganna was identified in 1990. As a result of reconnaissance
survey two remarkable mounds were identified; and the finds
include numerous stone artefacts such as ground stone axes,
grinding stones, axes, pounders and bifacial arrow heads made
of basalt as well as figurines. The most significant aspect of this
sites is that it depicts one of the earliest site with domestic
animas in West Africa South of the Sahara, dating to 2,500
years. The small clay figurines from the site represent the
earliest art in Borno. Some depict animals such as cattle and
anthropomorphic objects.
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The Bama Ridge is an old shoreline of the Paleo Lake Chad.
At a sandpit on top of the ridge close to Konduga, a settlement
site was dated to over 6000 years.
The Dufuna canoe discovered in 1987, is so far the oldest
canoe in Africa and the third oldest in the world, with an
antiquity of over 8000 years.
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9.4
UNIT: 3
SUMMARY
That the 3000 years barrier has expanded by the discovery
at Konduga and Dufuna.
9.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
9.6
Identify two archeological sites best known to you in
the
Chad
basin
establishing
their
general
characteristics
REFERENCE
Cannah, G. (1987) African Civilization, Pre-Colonial Cities
And States In Tropical Africa: An Archaeological Perspective.
Cambridge University Press.
Childe, V.G. (1936) Man Makes Himself. London: C:A.
Watts.
Childe, V.G. (1942) What happened in History. London:
Penguin Books.
9.7
SUGGESTED READING
Bassey W. Andah (1995) The Epistemology of West
African Settlements. Special issue of West African Journal
of Archaeology Vol. 25 No. 1.
Chang, K.C. (1968) Settlement Archaeology. Palo Alto Calif,
National Press Books.
Clark, D. (1982) Urban Geography. Baltimore, John
Hopkins University Press.
Mabogunje, A.L. (1968) Urbanization in Nigeria. University
of London Press, London.
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SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
TOPIC 1:
1.
Identify the various
Paleolithic period.
industrial
complexes
of
the
Answer – They are early stone age, middle stone age and
late stone age.
TOPIC 2:
1.
What are the direct and indirect evidences of the
beginning of Agriculture in West Africa?
Answer – The direct evidence are the remains of
domesticated plants and animal in context. The indirect
evidence are all materials discovered in archaeological
context that suggests the presence of plants and animals
e.g. rock paintings and terracotta representation.
TOPIC 3:
1.
What is the contrast between smelting and smithing?
Answer – Smelting is an archaic way of melting icon ores while
smiting is the modern way of smelting using bellows.
TOPIC 4:
1.
2.
Define urbanization
Answer – Urbanization simply is a process whereby
human beings congregate in relatively large number at
one particular spot of the earth surface.
Identify three traits which V. Gordon childe used in
defining urbanism and civilization.
Answer – The three traits include density of population
surplus food and political authority.
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TOPIC 5:
1.
UNIT: 3
When was wok culture discovered?
Answer – In 1928
2.
What were the characteristic traits of the wok culture?
Answer – They were modeled in clay with hollow and
coil – built reworked from the outside. The fabric consists
of day with grain of mica, quartz or granite. The
terracotta represents human heads and figures and some
parts of animals and reptiles.
TOPIC 6:
1.
Was Igbo – Ukwu discovered through systematic means?
Discuss this in the light of its discovery.
Answer – Ibgo – Ukwu was discovered accidentally when
Isaiah was digging a cistern in his compound.
TOPIC 7:
1.
What are the sources for Benin history?
Answer – The sources are made up of travelers records,
oral tradition, art history and archaeology.
TOPIC 8:
1.
Was there any relationship between Ife and Benin in
prehistory?
Answer – The relationship is in the technology of cire
perdue, that it was Ife that taught Benin to produce its
master pieces.
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2.
UNIT: 3
What was the general conception of the Yoruba as regard
Ife history?
Answer – Ife is regarded as the centre of the world and it
was at Ife that the wall was created.
TOPIC 9:
1.
Identify two archaeological sites best known to you in the
Chad Basin establishing their general characteristics.
Answer – Gajiganna produced several artifacts such as
ground stone axes, grinding stones, axes, pounders,
bifacial arrow heads, while Dufuna produces a single
artifact, the canoe dating over 8000 years.
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TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
INSTRUCTION:
ANSWER FOUR QUESTIONS ONLY
1.
Comment on the evidence of early agriculture in Nigeria
2.
Outline the history and development of metallurgy
in
Nigeria.
3.
What are the problems and prospects of archaeological
research in the Chad region of North-East Nigeria.
4.
Evaluate the state of Archaeological excavation at any
site known to you.
5.
Write on two of the following:a. Igbo-Ukwu
b. Iwo-Eleru
c. Nok Culture
6.
Evaluate the evidence for the existence of stone age
populations in the Nigerian region.
7.
Discuss the significance of Daima to the study of the
prehistory of the Chad Basin.
8.
“The
Discoveries
at
Igbo-Ukwu
have
raised
more
problems than they have solved.” Discuss this statement
with reference to the history and archaeology of the
region of study.
9.
Outline the history and development of Archaeology in
Nigeria.
10.
Argue for or against the domestication of Plants and
animal husbandry in Nigeria.
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