NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS CURRICULUM SUPPORT
Religious, Moral and
Philosophical Studies
Morality in the Modern World:
Buddhism
[INTERMEDIATE 2;
HIGHER]
Angela Brown
The Scottish Qualifications Authority regularly reviews
the arrangements for National Qualifications. Users of
all NQ support materials, whether published by LT
Scotland or others, are reminded that it is their
responsibility to check that the support materials
correspond to the requirements of the current
arrangements.
Acknowledgements
Learning and Teaching Scotland gratefully acknowledge this contribution to the National
Qualifications support programme for RMPS. Passages from ‘The Dhammapada’ are taken by
kind permission of the publishers from The Dhammapada (The Path of Perfection), translated
and with an introduction by Juan Mascaró, Penguin Classics 1973.
© Learning and Teaching Scotland 2005
This resource may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes by educational
establishments in Scotland provided that no profit accrues at any stage.
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Contents
Introduction
4
Section 1:
Crime and punishment
The purpose of punishment
Capital punishment
12
12
14
Section 2:
Gender
Gender stereotyping
Economic issues
17
17
19
Section 3:
International issues
Globalisation
International aid
22
22
24
Section 4:
Medical ethics
Genetic engineering
Euthanasia
27
27
29
Section 5:
War and peace
Responses to war
Modern armaments
32
32
35
Suggested resources
Useful publications
Useful websites
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38
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INTRODUCTION
Introduction
This pack provides an introduction to Buddhist moral principles and viewpoints and
can be studied as part of the Morality in the Modern World units (Intermediate 2 and
Higher). There is a brief overview of ethical principles from Buddhism with reference
to scripture and tradition. The five main sections of the pack cover moral principles
and viewpoints on ten ethical issues, from the perspective of Buddhism. The student
information sheets try to show, where possible, a variety of Buddhist viewpoints on
each of the issues. Reference is made to key scriptural texts and comments from
religious leaders and traditions.
Teachers should discourage students from relying exclusively on the information
provided here: an appropriate depth and breadth of knowledge will be acquired only
through further reading and research. Teachers should supplement the information
with additional textual, internet and audio-visual resources.
Visiting speakers from the Buddhist community can be invited to talk to students. This
will help to bring the information alive. It will also help students to understand fully
how the Buddhist faith influences the moral choices of its members in contemporary
Scottish society.
The ten ethical issues covered are related to five key themes:
1.
Crime and punishment:
a.
b.
The purpose of punishment
Capital punishment
2.
Gender:
a.
b.
Gender stereotyping
Economic issues
3.
International issues:
a.
b.
Globalisation
International aid
4.
Medical ethics:
a.
b.
Genetic engineering
Euthanasia
5.
War and peace:
a.
b.
Responses to war
Modern armaments
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INTRODUCTION
Overview of ethical principles in Buddhism
What we are today comes from our thoughts of yesterday, and our present thoughts
build our life of tomorrow: our life is the creation of our mind.
… If a man speaks or acts with an impure mind, suffering follows him as the wheel of
the cart follows the beast that draws the cart.
Dhammapada 2, 1
Unlike the followers of other religions, Buddhists do not worship a personal god, so
they do not believe in an afterlife that is God’s reward or punishment for their actions.
Buddhism does not have a central authority which can make pronouncements on
ethical issues on behalf of the whole Buddhist community.
Buddhists look to the teachings of their founder Siddhatta Gautama when considering
areas of ethical and moral dilemma. These teachings are called the Dhamma. The term
Dhamma can refer to a particular teaching such as the Four Noble Truths, a collection
of scripture such as the Pali Canon, or to the whole of Buddhist teaching. The
Dhamma is sometimes translated as ‘The Way’, as it shows what Buddhists should do
in order to gain enlightenment.
The main purpose of Buddha’s teaching was to help people overcome suffering and
achieve happiness, not to teach about ‘everything’. Buddha taught all human beings a
path for achieving enlightenment and wellbeing. Just before his death, he said of his
teachings:
Ananda, it may be that you will think, ‘The Teacher’s instruction has ceased. Now we
have no teacher!’ It should be seen like this, Ananda, for what I have taught and
explained to you as Dhamma and discipline will, at my passing, be your teacher.
The Long Discourses of the Buddha 269–270
Wisdom Publications, 1987
After Buddha’s death a gathering of arhats agreed on one version of the Dhamma.
Ananda, as one of Buddha’s closest disciples, recited every teaching the Buddha had
taught. A council was held in 480 BCE in Ragir to agree on a text, since any oral
teachings could be subject to change over the years. A further council was held in 380
BCE but this eventually caused a split within Buddhism – Theravada and Mahayana.
The dates are a rough guide only: many scholars argue over their accuracy.
The sayings of the Buddha were eventually written down and became the Sutta Pitaka
section of the Pali Canon. It is thought that these first scriptures were written down by
Theravadin monks in the first century BCE.
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INTRODUCTION
The Pali Canon is made up of three sections, referred to as baskets – pitaka. Therefore
the Pali Canon is also known as the Tipitaka, or three baskets. The three sections are:

Vinaya Pitaka – this contains the rules of the Sangha, the Four Noble Truths and
the Noble Eightfold Path

Sutta Pitaka – this contains the Buddha’s sermons – the basic philosophies and
doctrines of Buddhism, the stories of the Buddha’s life and enlightenment

Adhidhamma Pitaka – this contains higher or philosophical Buddhist teachings.
Mahayana Buddhism includes additional references to later scriptures that were
inspired by Buddha’s teaching but are not considered to be his actual words.
The Mahayana scriptures include:
 Pranjaparamita Sutras – this contains the Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra; it
also includes a guide to achieving the wisdom of the bodhisattva
 The Lotus Sutra – this is regarded as the final teachings of the Buddha; it
emphasises that Buddha wanted everyone to understand the Dhamma.
Do not what is evil. Do what is good. Keep your mind pure. This is the teaching of
Buddha.
Dhammapada 183
Moral conduct for Buddhists varies depending on whether you are a member of the
laity or the monastic community. When becoming a Buddhist you recite three times
the three refuges:
I go for refuge to the Buddha
I go for refuge to the Dhamma
I go for refuge to the Sangha.
A Buddhist recites these on a daily basis, sometimes more frequently. Buddhists also
undertake to follow precepts, of which there are ten in all. Buddhists who have not
undertaken a vow to live a monastic life try to adhere to five precepts. These precepts
are based on the Dhamma and reflect values such as compassion, respect, selfrestraint, honesty and wisdom. It is the individual’s responsibility to follow the
precepts and lead a moral life. There is no overall authority that legislates right and
wrong on particular issues.
The five precepts are common to both communities – laity and monastic.
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The five precepts are:
1.
I undertake to avoid harming another life – the principle of ahimsa or nonviolence
2.
I undertake to avoid taking what is not given
3.
I undertake to avoid sexual misconduct
4.
I undertake to avoid incorrect speech
5.
I undertake to avoid drink and drugs that cloud the mind.
The monastic community follow ten precepts. With reference to the first five, they
replace the word ‘avoid’ with ‘abstain from’. The additional five precepts are
considered more difficult to adhere to in a life outside the monastic community.
6.
I undertake to avoid food after midday
7.
I undertake to avoid a high or luxurious bed
8.
I undertake to avoid public amusements, for example music and dancing
9.
I undertake to avoid jewellery and perfume
10.
I undertake to avoid handling gold and silver.
Three of these additional precepts – usually 6, 7 and 8 – are practised by pious
Buddhists on special holy days, especially those within the Theravada tradition. At
this time these Buddhists also undertake a period of celibacy, strengthening the third
precept.
The precepts are guidelines that are helpful to the unenlightened. Those who are
enlightened will know, or should know, the right thing to do in each circumstance.
Each precept has two aspects to it. A Buddhist has to promise to avoid doing certain
things, for example ‘I undertake to avoid harming another life’. At the same a
Buddhist should be developing positive qualities out of this undertaking, for example
‘I shall show loving kindness to all beings’.
Some members of the laity within the Mahayana tradition take on the bodhisattva
vow. This does not require adherence to additional precepts but rather a stricter
adherence to the first precept. Among other things, it can involve becoming a
vegetarian.
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INTRODUCTION
The monastic community within Buddhism is called the Sangha, and for males, who
are called Bhikkhus, there are 227–253 rules, depending on the school or tradition.
There are 290–354 rules for Bhikkhunis, females, depending on the school or
tradition.
The rules are found in the Vinaya, the first collection of the Buddhist scriptures, and
are divided into several groups, each having a penalty if they are broken.
The first four rules for males and eight for females are called Parajika, or rules of
defeat. If these are broken then the person faces expulsion from the community.
The first four rules are applicable to both males and females. They forbid the
following:




sexual intercourse
killing a human being
stealing to the point that it is worthy of a prison sentence
claiming to have miraculous or super powers.
The Buddha did, however, give permission to amend or abandon any rules should they
become unnecessary or redundant because conditions change. This applies to all
schools and traditions. Rules were added to as necessary throughout the Buddha’s life.
Theravadins claim to observe all the rules to the letter, but interpretation of the rules
can vary between traditions, as shown by the following examples.
The rule not to take food at inappropriate times can be interpreted to mean:



not eating between meal times
fasting at particular periods of the day, such as noon to sunrise
those who live in very cold climates have an exemption from fasting because it
would be a health risk.
The rule about not handling gold or silver is generally not followed because it is too
impractical in the modern world. However, it can be interpreted to mean:


handling money is acceptable but accumulating wealth is not, because it can lead
to greed
carrying cash is not acceptable but having access to credit cards or cheque books
is acceptable.
Buddhist ethics are dependent upon Buddhist beliefs. One of the fundamental beliefs
within Buddhism is that humans experience a general dissatisfaction with life. This
occurs because humans constantly crave or want things. Even when these desires are
met, this does not stop the craving. Dissatisfaction is still experienced.
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The problem of why suffering arises, and how it can be overcome, was explained by
the Buddha in the Four Noble Truths.
1.
Everything is unsatisfactory
2.
Unsatisfactoriness stems from craving
3.
To get rid of unsatisfactoriness you must get rid of the craving
4.
To get rid of the craving you should follow the Noble Eightfold Path
Dukkha
Tanha
Nibbana
Magga
The fourth Noble Truth refers to the Noble Eightfold Path, which is a set of
recommendations on how to live. By following it, Buddhists believe that they are on a
path which will remove suffering and set them on the road to enlightenment, or
Nibbana. It is a middle path between a life of self-indulgence and a life of self-denial.
It is a practical path and Buddhists follow it as a whole way of life. It comprises eight
steps:
 Right view: knowing the difference between right and wrong and being aware of
the effects of these actions
 Right intention: doing things for the right reason with no expectation of praise,
profit, reward or recognition
 Right speech: no foul or abusive language, causing harm or offence
 Right conduct: being considerate, treating everyone equally and with the same
respect
 Right livelihood: not earning a living at the expense of others, or causing suffering
through occupation, for example selling alcohol or weapons
 Right effort: staying on the spiritual path of Buddhism, avoiding harmful thoughts
and cultivating positive ones
 Right mindfulness: being aware of thoughts and actions and how these contribute
to the world
 Right concentration: practising meditation in order to gain enlightenment –
Nibbana.
These eight steps may be further divided into three sections:
Right view
Right intention
WISDOM (prajna)
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INTRODUCTION
Right speech
Right conduct
Right livelihood
MORALITY (sila)
Right effort
Right mindfulness
Right concentration
MEDITATION (samadhi)
The steps of the Noble Eightfold Path are designed to be taken together, not as a
sequential ladder.
The threefold division of the Noble Eightfold Path – wisdom, morality and meditation
– is often referred to as the Triple Way or the Threefold Way.
Right view and right intention encourage the development of wisdom. Wisdom comes
with seeing things as they really are and the acceptance of the Buddhist teaching of
anicca. Nevertheless things cannot be disregarded or seen as unimportant.
Moral behaviour is activated through right speech, right conduct and right livelihood.
Buddhist ethics are intended to promote positive behaviour and attitudes and cultivate
values such as wisdom, love and compassion for all beings. To be content with a
simple life and to become detached from all materialistic concerns are things which
can only be achieved from a controlled mind through the practice of meditation.
Buddhism is not about promoting the self or self-seeking interests. It is about reducing
craving and about not being selfish – ‘egolessness’. This is done through moral
behaviour and actions, which within Buddhism are linked to kamma. Good behaviour
and actions encourage good kamma, and vice versa. Good or positive kamma is
helpful for a future rebecoming; the effects of kamma can take place in this life or the
next. Actions which promote the self should be avoided as they can make a negative
contribution to kamma. Buddhists are keen to do only that which will encourage or
create positive kamma. These are called skilful actions.
A skilful action is called punna, which means fortunate – something that will bring
merit and therefore accumulate positive kamma. Three kinds of action that will bring
merit are:
 moral conduct (sila)
 meditation (bhavana)
 charity (dana).
Why do Buddhists generally refer to actions as either skilful or unskilful, rather than
good or bad? There are several reasons for this. Firstly, actions are related to the
person who is performing them. What might be right for one person might be wrong
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INTRODUCTION
for another. Secondly, the intention of a person’s action must be taken into account.
Did they mean to speak, act or think in that manner? Thirdly, all actions have
consequences and therefore can be judged to see whether they will produce positive or
negative kamma. The precepts are therefore seen as necessary guidelines which
provide a framework of moral discipline.
Unskilful (akusala) actions spring from negative qualities such as greed, hatred or
ignorance – the three mental poisons. Buddhists believe these fuel the samsaric cycle.
Whereas skilful (kusala) actions come from love, generosity and wisdom, actions
which avoid the likelihood of causing suffering. For a Buddhist the motive or intention
behind an action is just as important as the action itself. Is the intention for selfish
means or not? Remember right intention is part of the Noble Eightfold Path. This can
involve judging the circumstances before any action is taken. This is called skilful
means (upaya kausalya) within Mahayana Buddhism. Skilful actions and skilful
means are developed by following the Noble Eightfold Path.
According to Buddhists the environment that we live in is a result of collective
kamma. People have acted selfishly and through greed to create bad or negative
kamma for society.
Today’s Buddhists would agree that it is not enough just to pray and meditate to
reduce the suffering in the world. They believe that becoming involved is important.
This is called ‘Engaged Buddhism’ – Buddhists taking social action on issues.
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CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
Section 1: Crime and punishment
The purpose of punishment: On what grounds can punishment be
morally justified?
Make haste and do what is good; keep your mind away from evil. If a man is slow in
doing good, his mind finds pleasure in evil.
If a man does something wrong, let him not do it again and again. Let him not find
pleasure in his sin. Painful is the accumulation of wrongdoings.
Dhammapada 116 and 117
Although Buddhists believe that crime will in itself produce negative kamma and
consequences for the perpetrator, they also recognise the need to protect society from
criminals. For Buddhists the fundamental reason for all suffering (including suffering
resulting in, or caused by, crime) is ignorance. As long as we are ignorant of the true
nature of reality, we will continue to behave unskilfully. This is the primary reason for
the exercise of compassion and wisdom in punishing offenders.
Right intention and right conduct are part of the Noble Eightfold Path. Buddhists
argue that, if we do things for the right reasons with no expectation of praise, profit,
reward or recognition, treating everyone with consideration and equality, then crime
(causing others to suffer) should not occur.
Suffering comes from the mind. Buddhists believe that in order to stop or prevent
further suffering it is important for the individual to control the mind.
Renunciation of violence must be born in the mind. Control of mind is something
inborn. I am not talking here about the control of mind which is achieved in deep
meditation. I am just talking about the kind of control which reduces anger, creates
respect and concern for others, and allows a clearer realisation that humans are
basically, the same … Today, you may be the type of person who is easily irritated
over small things. If you become aware of this, realising the consequences of your
irritation, self-control will result.
Dalai Lama, Voices of Survival
Buddhists are not against punishment, in principle, in the form of fines, community
service and prison. Society intends that punishment should protect, deliver retribution,
deter, reform and vindicate.
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A term of imprisonment gives the person time to think and reflect upon their actions.
It protects them and society from their harmful behaviour. Right mindfulness and right
concentration are part of the Noble Eightfold Path and, when practised, they
encourage and develop qualities such as compassion, love, tolerance and selfdiscipline – right view, right speech and right conduct.
Prison is seen to encourage rehabilitation and reform, and the process of reforming the
criminal through punishment can discourage feelings such as greed, anger and pride,
which are divisive and prevent us seeing that people are equal.
The Buddhist practice of equanimity is encouraged here. This is the practice of setting
ourselves equal to others. All beings are equally worthy of comparison – all wish to be
happy. This practice can help to break down barriers between people, caused by greed,
anger and pride. A first step towards this would be to encourage the offender to
identify what everyone has in common.
Buddhists believe that all problems derive from a deluded mind. The deluded mind
strives for happiness, often through material wealth and possessions. When the person
cannot have this they sometimes resort to crime.
Buddhists would say that it is important to look behind the crime, at the nature and
intention of the behaviour, and try to find a solution. For Buddhists this would be to
encourage the person to detach from the attractions of material goods – to stop the
craving and wanting. To stop this will stop suffering and the feelings of
dissatisfaction. Then the person will be on a path to finding true and lasting happiness.
Harmful acts do not create happiness. They create suffering for both the victim and the
perpetrator. This is done out of ignorance and delusion, and Buddhists would
encourage people to recognise this, which in turn will lead them on the path to
enlightenment.
because of unwise choices, some people (the ‘monsters’ of this world) push themselves
to the extremes of cruelty and hate, and cause horrendous suffering. But this does not
destroy the seed of Buddhahood within; it is simply buried beneath layer upon layer of
ignorance, misery and pain. ‘Buddha monsters’ suffer from the delusion that to
protect themselves they need to harm or destroy others.
Rev. Chusin Passmore, ‘There is always a choice’1
[Note: the doctrine of Buddha nature, or the seed of Buddhahood, is a specifically
Mahayana doctrine.]
1
In W. O. Cole (ed.), Moral Issues in Six Religions, Heinemann, 1991.
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CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
Punishment may act as a deterrent which will in turn protect criminals from creating
further bad kamma for themselves. An understanding of kamma would help people to
consider their actions and give them control over their lives. Actions generate kamma
which not only shapes this lifetime but future lifetimes. By their actions, criminals and
offenders create a punishment for the future as well as the one the law imposes.
Any punishment should work towards reforming the offender, offering compassion
and a second chance, helping offenders to work towards generating positive kamma.
Some Buddhists work within the prison service to help achieve this. Angulimala2 is
the name of a Buddhist society which works in prisons and with prisoners after
release. It works as part of the prison chaplaincy service and has established in some
prisons areas of contemplation called ‘Buddha Groves’, areas of peaceful thought to
encourage prisoners to reflect on their past lifestyle and how this can change through
compassion for others.
Buddhists do not agree with punishment that inflicts further unnecessary suffering.
Capital punishment aside, Buddhists do not agree with heavy financial penalties being
placed upon those who are poor in the first place. Nor would they wish additional
suffering to be extended to the offender’s family – coping with the fines, having to
travel great distances for prison visits, etc. This would be to ignore the teachings
within the Noble Eightfold Path, especially right conduct and right mindfulness.
In addition, the Buddhist practice of loving kindness would also be displayed here,
encouraging a harmonious society through tolerance and understanding.
Capital punishment: Is capital punishment morally justifiable?
Who hurts not any living being, whether feeble or strong, who neither kills nor causes
to kill – him I call a Brahmin.
Who is tolerant to the intolerant, peaceful to the violent, free from greed with the
greedy – him I call a Brahmin.
Dhammapada 405 and 406
With regard to punishment, Buddhists look to the five precepts or panca-sila. These
precepts advocate good conduct for all Buddhists, lay or ordained.
Here the first precept is the most important: to abstain from taking a life. This is the
principle of ahimsa or non-violence. By following this precept, a Buddhist is
abstaining from the destruction of life and through this can begin to develop
compassion (karuna) for all beings.
All life should be treasured no matter how badly it might display itself.
2
See www.angulimala.org.uk for the story of Angulimala.
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Buddhism teaches that all sentient beings are fundamentally good. Many Buddhists
believe that all sentient beings possess what is called Buddha-nature, which means
they have the potential to gain enlightenment. All life is therefore regarded as
important because of its spiritual potential waiting to be released.
Buddhaghosa, a famous teacher around CE 400, wrote:
‘Taking Life’ means to kill anything that lives. The precept says that you should not
strike or kill any living being.
‘Anything that lives’ is anything that has what is called the ‘life force’. This includes
all members of the animal kingdom as well as humans.
‘Taking life’ means killing or trying to kill deliberately, by word or action. When it
comes to human beings, the killing is considered to be worse if the person killed was a
good person.
Apart from that the seriousness of the offence is also measured by how much the
murderer wanted the killing to happen.
Ethics and Religions, Longman
Buddhists therefore take a strong position against capital punishment, enforcing the
belief that violence towards others, and the taking of a life in particular, incurs
negative or bad kamma. Bad actions bring bad results and consequences. These results
are not necessarily worked out in this life but can be carried forward to a future one.
In relation to capital punishment, Buddhists would say that executed criminals are not
given the chance to learn from their mistakes.
Central to the Buddhist faith is the possibility of development. No matter how evil
someone behaves they always have the possibility of correcting their behaviour. To
deny that possibility of change by imposing the death penalty, for example, is to
contradict the whole spirit of Buddhism.
James Belither, Human Rights from a Buddhist Perspective
Compassion should be offered to anyone, whatever their circumstance and whatever
acts they may have committed. Members of the Buddhist Peace Fellowship often sit
outside prisons on the days of executions.
How does the Buddhist view of capital punishment influence official practice in
nations with a strong connection to Buddhism? Thubten Gyatso, Dalai Lama XIII of
Tibet (1876–1933), was the predecessor of the current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso.
The 13th Dalai Lama fought hard to modernise Tibet and as part of this he reformed
Tibet’s feudal legal system. Among the changes he put in place was the abolition of
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CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
the death penalty by about 1920. Before that time the Dalai Lama avoided any direct
involvement in cases of capital punishment because of his religious role.
How do modern governments that claim some official connection with Buddhism
approach the issue of capital punishment? Bhutan, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Thailand
have Buddhism as their state religion. Bhutan is predominantly Mahayana Buddhist;
the others are Theravada. Of these four nations, only Cambodia has abolished the
death penalty. In Bhutan and Thailand it remains as a punishment, but the kings of
both of these nations generally follow a policy of commuting death sentences
(exchanging the death penalty for a less severe punishment). Official executions have
not taken place in either country for a number of years. However, the death penalty
appears still to be in place in Sri Lanka, and this is very difficult to justify from a
Buddhist point of view.
Some Buddhists view capital punishment as a form of retribution or revenge, paying
back the criminal for his evil deeds. Revenge and retaliation may make someone feel
better temporarily, but the intention behind the action is to harm and this therefore
incurs negative kammic consequences. This goes against the Buddhist teachings of
compassion (karuna) and kindness (metta).
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GENDER
Section 2: Gender
Gender stereotyping: Is the stereotyping of male and female roles
morally justifiable?
During the lifetime of Buddha, society was essentially patriarchal. Women were not
treated equally; they were subservient to men. However, the role of wife and mother
was regarded as an important one, and Buddha taught that men and women were
equally capable of gaining enlightenment. As a result many women chose the spiritual
path of Buddhism. It is argued that Buddha, by allowing women to become nuns, was
giving them the same spiritual status as men, and although there are more rules for
nuns within Buddhism, many Buddhists would argue that these were created to protect
women within the patriarchal society of the time.
I call the Dhamma the charioteer, with right view running out in front. One who has
such a vehicle – whether a woman or man – has, by means of this vehicle, drawn close
to Nibbana.
The Connected Discourses of the Buddha I: 122, Wisdom Publications, 2000
Buddha criticised the prejudices that society held against women. Therefore, within
Buddhism, the caste system, which many saw as contributing to the inferior status of
women in India, is not recognised. Buddha accepted disciples from all levels of
society and treated them with equal concern and respect. His acceptance of women as
disciples, and his belief that they were as capable of spiritual development as men,
was very unusual given the male-dominated society of the time.
Within Buddhism there is no teaching which encourages gender differences. For
example, the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path contain no gender
biases. Buddhist teaching naturally lends itself to the idea of gender equality. The
concept of anatta – no self – essentially breaks down the divisions between male and
female. They are made up of the same five skandhas (body, feelings, perceptions,
impulses, consciousness). Any fixed ideas about male and female come from society,
not as part of stereotyping within Buddhism.
With regards to the media, Buddhism would not support a medium which portrays one
gender in a discriminatory way. For example, Buddhists do not support the view that
women can be used from an aesthetic point of view to sell a product. This would
promote the idea that happiness can only be found from external sources, and also that
women are inferior to men.
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GENDER
A fundamental belief of Buddhism is dukkha, or suffering. Dukkha can be caused by
negative actions and attitudes. If women are denied opportunities through stereotyping
on the grounds of their gender, or if they are excluded from occupations, they
experience suffering, and this is contrary to Buddhist teaching. It breaks the first
precept about harming another life. While the harm may not be physical, it is certainly
emotional and psychological. Also if discrimination occurs against women then they
are not being treated equally and hence compassion is not being shown.
He who seeks happiness for himself by making others unhappy is bound in the chains
of hate and from those he cannot be free.
Dhammapada 291
Discrimination, because of its limiting capabilities, denies the people involved a
quality of life, which again contradicts the first precept. Buddhists should be seen to
protect and promote equal opportunities for both men and women.
Buddhists accept that men and women can offer different roles within society, but
there is a difference between acknowledging these roles and judging them on their
importance. Buddhists do not support the view that a woman should stay at home to
do housework. This argument has been used by some men over many years to deny
women the same career opportunities that men have.
However, although Buddhist teaching does not encourage gender differences, this
does not stop gender inequality in the form of male dominance in Buddhist
institutions. Females who join a monastic order have to agree to follow eight special
rules which essentially place them in a subordinate position to monks. For example,
nuns must respect any monk as their senior, no matter how young. In addition they
cannot criticise a monk, or officially admonish a monk.
Among Therevadins, men and women are seen as equal but each has a different role.
The role of a man is to provide for his family, and the role of the woman is to care for
the family. In the Theravadin tradition there is some difficulty about the status of nuns
since full ordination died out in the eleventh century. Monks and nuns are in separate
orders. Western branches of Buddhism are at present trying to address the fact that
western female Buddhists within this tradition who opt to take up a monastic lifestyle
are prevented from achieving a fully ordained status. They are technically only lay
sisters and do not have the same social status as monks. Many of them have to do their
own shopping and cooking as they tend to have more difficulty obtaining donations.
In other branches of Buddhism this is not the case. Women can be fully ordained and
indeed reach positions of great responsibility within the Buddhist faith. For example,
women are heads of the reformed Soto-Zen Church, Shasta Abbey in California, and
Throssel Hole Priory in the UK.
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Buddhism recognises the value of the feminist movement.
Feminism … could be described as a movement that demands – or insists – that
women should have access to all the facilities that they require for their development
as human beings; it asserts that they should not be confined or limited to any
particular range of facilities or activities; and it encourages them to take more
initiative, be more independent, and to function as individuals in their own right,
rather than being mere extensions or supports to the men in their lives. Feminism of
this sort is quite compatible with Buddhism and the spiritual life …
At the hub of the FWBO [Friends of the Western Buddhist Order] we therefore find a
unified Order of women and men; everything in the Order is open to women and men;
they take the same ordination and vows; they exercise the same functions at public
centres; they practise the same meditations, study the same texts, and so on. In the
FWBO we feel that no one should be excluded from the process of higher human
development, whether on the grounds of sex, race, colour, level of education, or social
position.
Golden Drum, No. 7, Nov–Jan 1987/8, p. 13, Windhorse Publications
Economic issues: Will economic equality between the sexes lead to a
more just society?
Since people are made up of the same five skandhas, and the idea of anatta – no fixed
self – essentially breaks down the divisions between male and female, each being is
connected with each other being. Everything is interdependent and affects everything
else. A person’s sex or skin colour is a temporary phenomenon within the samsaric
cycle of life. Buddhism naturally lends itself to the idea of gender equality, and so to
economic equality.
Buddhism also views this equality as perfectly just and leading to a just society.
Within Buddhism, the fundamental belief of dukkha, or suffering, can be caused by
negative actions and attitudes. If women are denied equal opportunities or are barred
from occupations on the grounds of their sex, they will experience suffering, and this
is contrary to Buddhist teaching. It breaks the first precept about harming another life.
The harm may not be physical harm but it is certainly emotional and psychological.
Also, if women are not being treated equally then compassion is not being shown.
Since denying equal opportunity causes suffering, it would not be a just action.
Because discrimination restricts a person’s full potential, it denies the people involved
a certain quality of life, which again contradicts the first precept by harming lives.
Thus Buddhists should be seen to protect and promote equal opportunities for both
men and women. In many families – not just single-parent families – it is the woman
who is the main earner. Today there is a greater expectation for women to work.
Inequality in pay and conditions for women makes a significant contribution to child
poverty and also devalues the contribution women make within a workforce.
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Buddhists see all human life as important regardless of the role society may set for it.
To devalue and discriminate on the grounds of gender is to create unnecessary
suffering. A system which allows one group to be treated in a selfish manner by
another would be rejected.
Within Buddhism everyone is entitled to equal respect. Mahayana Buddhists believe
that everyone has the potential to be a Buddha; it is just that they are not necessarily
aware of it. All people have equal access to the Buddha-nature.
Compassion and justice cannot be separated. A Buddhist would state that you cannot
show compassion if at the same time you are willing to allow injustice to take place. It
is therefore wrong to discriminate on any grounds.
He who seeks happiness for himself by making others unhappy is bound in the chains
of hate and from those he cannot be free.
Dhammapada 291
Buddhism places importance on the awareness of interdependence. By doing so, less
focus is placed on the needs, desires and wants of the individual. Buddha’s teaching
on anatta helps to break down barriers of individuality and self-centredness which in
turn encourages people to think as a community. Working together will lead to a more
just society as there would be no room for unfairness or injustice.
Many do not know that we are here in this world to live in harmony. Those who know
this do not fight against each other.
Dhammapada 6
Buddhists believe that all humanity shares a common link; all of the world is
interconnected. Plants, other animal species and humans are all part of the everchanging stream of life, therefore harming others is the same as harming yourself. On
these grounds Buddhists argue that is wrong to be prejudiced and to discriminate
against someone on the grounds of their gender.
For Buddhists, the ideal society is one ruled by the Dhamma. The purpose of the
Buddhist Dhamma is to enable people to overcome suffering and experience perfect
happiness. This means that actions that cause conflict are destructive and therefore
unskilful. If the Dhamma was followed by everyone, then it would eliminate all
inequality. Knowledge and understanding of the Dhamma allows the individual to take
control of their lives and begin to put this practical knowledge into practice. This
allows for self-improvement, which in turn influences kamma.
Buddhists argue that if respect for women increases within society then there will be
an increase in positive kamma. Just as an individual’s actions have consequences so
do actions taken by society as a whole. This collective kamma, be it good or bad,
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affects everyone. Therefore an increase in positive kamma is good for society and
would encourage a just one.
… If a man speaks or acts with an impure mind, suffering follows him as the wheel of
the cart follows the beast that draws the cart.
Dhammapada 1
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INTERNATIONAL ISSUES
Section 3: International issues
Globalisation: Is the process of globalisation morally justifiable?
Second Noble Truth. Now this, bhikkus, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it
is craving which leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking
delight here and there; craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving
for extermination.
The Connected Discourses of the Buddha II: 1844, Wisdom Publications, 2000
In the process of globalisation, companies actively seek out the cheapest resources and
labour they can get from all over the world. They aim for the lowest costs so that they
can make a good profit. This often results in much of the labour being sourced in the
developing world since workers are paid less there.
But one is the path of earthly wealth, and another is the path of NIRVANA. Let the
follower of Buddha think of this and, without striving for reputation, let him ever strive
after freedom.
Dhammapada 75
By following the Noble Eightfold Path and adhering to right livelihood it is important
that a Buddhist should earn a living which does not go against the principles of
harming others. Buddhists believe that work should be of benefit to others, and not
exploit them.
Buddhists are against globalisation where it causes suffering to others. Low pay and
often terrible working conditions cause suffering. Buddhists are also opposed to
globalisation because the companies are accumulating profit and wealth – often very
large and unnecessary wealth – at the expense of others. Globalisation can mean the
spreading of greed, violence and self-interest. From a Buddhist point of view, when
society becomes motivated by these unwholesome roots, that society will face
difficulties such as corruption, crime, war exploitation and abuse.
Greed, craving and desire are attitudes which are not encouraged within Buddhism.
These attitudes lead to more suffering. Buddhists see the world we live in as governed
by desire. These desires take people on a continual quest for satisfaction. This, in turn,
makes life a search for happiness through the accumulation of material wealth and
possessions. Ironically this search causes cravings and dissatisfaction and can only
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lead to unhappiness. Wealth in itself does not bring happiness. For a Buddhist, at the
very core of the globalisation process is the globalisation of tanha, or craving.
Buddhism teaches that tanha is the cause of suffering, which must be removed. Tanha
creates and encourages perceived needs, which benefit a few but often leave many
others discontented, dependent and poor. Some people believe that globalisation
places an increased emphasis on material goods to improve the quality of life, and this
results in many people becoming not only physically poor but spiritually poor too.
Inner peace and happiness can only come about through a reduction in tanha, allowing
the development of qualities of compassion, wisdom and generosity, real qualities
which help people cope with suffering.
Wealth destroys the fool who seeks the Beyond. Because of greed for wealth the fool
destroys himself as if he were his own enemy.
Dhammapada 355
Buddhists believe that we are interdependent on each other – in terms of humanity and
resources. We cannot live simply for ourselves, without regard to others who make
our lives possible. Buddhism promotes an awareness of interdependence and also
promotes the principles of equality and justice for all nations. However, Buddhists are
against a concept of interdependence which allows dominant nations to control the
conditions of dependent nations who need their financial and economic support.
Developing nations can become debt ridden, suffering internal conflict, poverty,
drought and famine.
Also, globalisation could result in an unnecessary depletion of resources, which will
affect us all.
As the bee takes the essence of a flower and flies away without destroying its beauty
and perfume, so let the sage wander in this life.
Dhammapada 49
Buddhists are encouraged to take only what is needed in life. Buddhists follow a
middle path, taking only what they need and creating as little damage as possible.
Globalisation involves kammic consequences for those involved. These will in the
main be negative. Buddhists believe that the effects of globalisation are creating
terrible conditions for people in developing nations. Just as a person’s actions have
consequences, so to do actions taken by groups of people, organisations or nations.
This collective kamma, good or bad, affects everyone. In the Noble Eightfold Path, the
concept of right livelihood – not earning a living at the expense of others, or causing
suffering through occupation – applies.
In addition, although Buddha’s teachings placed more emphasis on personal
transformation than on social reform, a movement in recent times among Buddhists
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has tried to encourage social justice through Buddha’s teachings. This is called
Engaged Buddhism. Buddhist ethics are based on removing the Three Mental
Poisons of greed, hatred and delusion. Buddhists argue that this does not just apply at
a personal level but also in a wider sense. It applies to institutions that operate and
influence society. Thinking about and being mindful of profits being made at the
expense of people or the environment by multinational companies are a way of
recognising how the Three Poisons can operate across the world.
The rise in popularity of Buddhism is part of a global revival of religious
consciousness. This is a natural human response to the tumultuous times that we are
living through. Globalisation brings greater economic opportunities, especially to a
small economy like Singapore. But it is also fundamentally reshaping the world that
we are living in, generating unpredictable and disorienting changes, and creating
apprehension, uncertainty and discontent. Religions help people to cope with such
uncertainties, and provide them a moral and spiritual anchor during disruptive times.
From http://www.dailynews.lk/2002/12/04/fea08.html
There is a good deal of evidence that there is no general condemnation of the process
of globalisation on the part of Buddhists. In fact the spread of Buddhism in the west is,
in part, due to globalisation. The principle of right livelihood applies here –
globalisation can be forced upon the world by those motivated by the Three Poisons –
or it can be encouraged by those motivated by compassion.
International aid: Is international aid an appropriate moral response to
world poverty?
If a man does something good, let him do it again and again. Let him find joy in his
good work. Joyful is the accumulation of good work.
Dhammapada 118
According to Buddhists we are living in a world which is driven by greed and desire.
For a Buddhist the main issue is not how poor or wealthy we are but how we respond
to our situation. Buddhists can and do use material items but should not be possessed
or used by them. Humans fail to see reality as it really is, and therefore continually
crave, which in turn brings ‘unsatisfactoriness’. Buddhists believe that wealth and
material possessions in themselves do not bring happiness. But Buddhists are not
expected to live a life of abject poverty. They are not insensitive to poverty, and do not
write poverty off as the consequences of kamma.
Buddhists believe in a Middle Way. This means striking a balance between wealth and
poverty. Poverty in Buddhism is not a virtue as it restricts or limits the individual from
achieving the potential of enlightenment which is within them. Poverty creates
divisions within society and causes some to feel inferior to others. Buddhists would
reject this situation.
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Many do not know that we are here in this world to live in harmony. Those who know
this do not fight against each other.
Dhammapada 6
Buddha himself did not say that lay people should not enjoy their possessions. He
recognised that basic needs were an important contribution to a person’s happiness
and well-being. It is said that Buddha named these basic things as: happiness of
owning things, happiness of enjoying them, happiness of being free from debt and
happiness of honesty.
If a Buddhist is generous, this in turn will produce positive kamma. The Buddhist
principles of right action and ‘loving kindness’ are important in the fight against
poverty. Generosity is an important virtue. Giving gifts freely will bring merit
provided the motive behind the action is to give freely with a desire to help the poor.
Therefore Buddhists do not boast about their charity work and it can go unnoticed and
without recognition. Also, since Buddhists believe that the motive or intention behind
an action is important, it is possible for a Buddhist to gain merit by rejoicing at
someone else’s act of giving, when they themselves have not given because they are
not in a position to give.
Buddhism places importance on achieving inner peace and contentment. This cannot
be achieved through the accumulation of wealth and power, which are dependent on
the outside world. In this world things do not last – they are impermanent. Peace and
contentment are not dependent upon the material world. Buddhism offers a lifestyle
and a path of mental development to achieve this inner happiness.
Experiencing poverty in this lifetime can be attributed to kamma from the past coming
to bear now. In the past the person may have been mean and miserly. However,
although it is tempting to blame the existence of poverty on kamma, Buddhists today
realise that poverty can be the result of a global economic system of social inequality,
allowing a few to prosper at the expense of many. This should be taken into account
when tackling the issue of poverty; the existence of aid is also part of the kammic
picture.
A Buddhist viewpoint is that any aid given should focus on development.
Humanitarian aid, rather than military aid, should be given to developing nations
because this is more likely to lead to long-term peace, stability and prosperity.
Military aid can only result in oppression. In some situations, military aid has been
used by the receiving nation against their own citizens.
The Dalai Lama talks about ‘universal responsibility’. The world has an increasing
population with limited resources. The environment affects everyone, and what
humans do affects the environment. Humans have an effect on the world. Having a
‘universal responsibility’ means recognising this. Kammic consequences of individual
actions not only affect the individual but at times they can affect others too. Within
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Buddhism, to encourage and generate good kamma can help everyone, not just the
individual.
Buddhists are encouraged to become engaged and to challenge the economic
structures that are creating and perpetuating suffering in the world. Working for
voluntary organisations is part of what has become known as ‘Engaged Buddhism’.
This is because it engages people in doing good for the community.
An example of this is the Karuna Trust which was founded in 1980 by the Friends of
the Western Buddhist Order (FWBO). It promotes education, health, skills training
and cultural activities in India’s poorest areas. The projects are open to anyone in
need, regardless of race and religion. Karuna means compassionate action based on
wisdom.
In Britain there is a network of Engaged Buddhists involved in many social issues –
helping those who are dying, homeless, poor or in prison. Another example is the
Amida Trust UK, a non-profit-making organisation which develops humanitarian
projects according to the principles of Buddhism.
Just as a flower which seems beautiful and has colour but has no perfume, so are the
fruitless words of a man who speaks them but does them not.
And just like a beautiful flower which has colour and also has perfume are the
beautiful fruitful words of the man who speaks and does what he says.
As from a large heap of flowers many garlands and wreaths can be made, so by a
mortal in this life there is much good work to be done.
Dhammapada 51, 52 and 53
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MEDICAL ETHICS
Section 4: Medical ethics
Genetic engineering: Can any forms of human genetic engineering
be morally justifiable?
Buddhism endorses the 1997 UN declaration on Human Dignity and the Genome,
which states:
That everyone has a right to respect for their dignity and for their rights regardless of
their genetic characteristics.
Buddhists have concerns about genetic engineering because many advances in this
area have included experimentation on animals. Buddhists are against any violence
towards any living being. This is the principle of ahimsa. Given this principle,
Buddhists would be against any suffering inflicted upon animals for medical
advancement. Buddhists have concerns about using animals for research purposes
which cause them pain, suffering or distress. Modern bio-technology would open up a
new era in exploitation of animals.
The principle of ahimsa would also cause Buddhists to see genetic engineering as an
attack on a person’s genetic make-up.
He who for the sake of happiness hurts others who also want happiness, shall not
hereafter find happiness.
Dhammapada 131
Buddhists are also against genetic engineering on the grounds that taking genes and
exchanging them or selling them is a form of theft. Genes from plants and animals, as
well as from young children, babies and embryos, are taken without their consent.
A further concern is that genetic engineering is introducing and/or removing
properties from one organism to another.
There are also kammic consequences to consider with these actions. Harming others
will accumulate negative kamma, producing negative results or consequences,
although kammic consequences can be delayed if genetic engineering brings benefits
or a reduction of suffering. Manipulating genes might be seen as tampering with
nature. It is affecting something which would not otherwise be possible or likely to
happen. Buddhism teaches that everything is interconnected and that whatever
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happens, happens as a result of causes and conditions. Each being is connected with
each other being. Everything is interdependent and affects everything else. Genetic
engineering alters these connections, which can have wide-ranging and unpredictable
results.
The intention behind any new medical research is important, and some Buddhists
believe that genetic engineering is an important part of medical research and has huge
potential benefits, as long as intention is looked at closely. Are the intentions for the
good of humanity – to prevent suffering? Buddhism aims to end suffering. Buddha
himself said:
Whoever, O monks, would nurse me, he should nurse the sick.
(Zyska 1991: 41)
However, even when there is no intention to harm a living thing, harm can still be
caused to animals and humans. Buddhists do not agree with cloning – taking DNA
from one animal or plant and transferring it to another of the same kind. Interfering
with nature for selfish purposes would be against Buddhist principles, particularly
since modification could have a wider impact on the environment. Cloning techniques
are still very risky and many attempts have caused abnormalities in the animals used.
Many would see this as cruel and unnecessary. The cloning of humans would be
totally rejected. It is in direct conflict with the principle of ahimsa. There is no
guarantee that cloned humans would be normal, and psychological problems, as well
as emotional difficulties, could arise if people discovered that they were clones.
Buddhists would reject the idea of cloning because it is something that will inflict
suffering, not just now but in the future. What would the kammic consequences be of
creating a genetic underclass for exploitation?
… If a man speaks or acts with an impure mind, suffering follows him as the wheel of
the cart follows the beast that draws the cart.
Dhammapada 1
Another problem for Buddhists with regards to genetic engineering would be the
consideration of embryos. Some Buddhists say that embryo research should be
permitted because an embryo does not fully embody the five skandhas, therefore
kammic consequences would be the same as those of harming an animal. Other
Buddhists disagree; they argue that life begins at conception and that the embryo,
although not fully formed with all five skandhas, is still a living human being.
Buddhists are also concerned about the risks involved in genetic engineering.
Irreversible damage could be done, which in turn would cause suffering. There could
also be long-term problems from genetic engineering since suffering might result in
the future. For example, people might be treated unjustly for jobs or life insurance as a
result of genetic screening.
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While it is noble and good to strive to develop cures for cancer and inherited genetic
diseases, at the same time this usually comes with the cost of suffering to animals in
the form of experimentation, and sometimes cruel treatment.
Buddhists do recognise the benefits of genetic engineering – helping infertility, curing
disease and disability. Many forms of curative medicine might involve changes in
genetic make-up. These are beneficial and would stop suffering.
Euthanasia: Can any forms of euthanasia be justified?
All beings tremble before danger, all fear death. When a man considers this, he does
not kill or cause to kill.
All beings fear before danger, life is dear to all. When a man considers this, he does
not kill or cause to kill.
Dhammapada 129 and 130
In principle, Buddhists are against active euthanasia as it is in direct conflict with the
first of the precepts: to abstain from taking a life. This is the principle of ahimsa, nonviolence.
Euthanasia would not be encouraged because a life is still working through kamma
from a previous lifetime. This kamma would then be carried forward to a future life to
work through again. Some Buddhists would even argue that, although the intention of
euthanasia is a good one (to stop suffering), the action causes more harm than good.
The wrong action seems sweet to the fool until the reaction comes and brings pain,
and the bitter fruits of wrong deeds have then to be eaten by the fool.
Dhammapada 69
Buddhists practise kindness, compassion, care and support for the person who is
dying. They work with agencies such as hospices helping the terminally ill to die with
dignity. Care and compassion for the dying is important to them. Buddhists support
organisations such as the Hospice Movement, which allows the person to die with
dignity. Buddhists believe that the dying should be allowed to die in as painless and
comfortable a way as possible. This is seen as a positive alternative to euthanasia as it
encourages the person and their relatives to use the time remaining for reflection and
learning.
The Buddhist Hospice Trust is an organisation that offers support and help, not only
for the dying, but for the living, the bereaved and their families. This Trust does not
offer medical support or nursing care but rather caters for the person’s spiritual needs.
The Trust is staffed on a voluntary basis and has no permanent premises. Volunteers
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visit patients in hospital or at home. They try where possible to provide friendship and
compassionate care for those who are seriously ill, dying or bereaved. The volunteers
in each area are linked through the Ananda Network. Their name comes from Ananda,
Buddha’s closest disciple, who cared for him when he was dying.
With voluntary euthanasia, where the ill person requests their own death, Buddhists
might argue that physical suffering has caused mental suffering and a wrong state of
mind. Buddhists would encourage medication and pain killers to eliminate physical
suffering, and so mental suffering. Buddhists would also be against voluntary
euthanasia because it involves someone else carrying out the wishes of the patient:
helping someone to die might also cause suffering in the person who is helping.
Under the Hippocratic Oath, doctors must try to preserve life. In this sense the
Hippocratic Oath reflects the Buddhist value of compassion to others. Doctors have
medical training but no special moral or ethical training to make them better placed
than the patient to determine whether the patient should live or die. Upholding the
Oath regardless of the patient’s illness or requests is a skilful action, one which will
bring merit and therefore accumulate positive kamma.
Despite these teachings, decisions about euthanasia would not be taken lightly and
easily by Buddhists. Through following the Eightfold Path, which includes areas such
as right intention and right action, each case would be taken on its own merits.
Some Buddhists would argue that, in very extreme circumstances, euthanasia may not
always be regarded as unskilful. This would be if it is done in full awareness of
actions and it is the only way to avoid further suffering. Some Buddhists would argue
that in some situations helping someone to die and to end their pain and suffering is
the most loving and compassionate thing to do. This would not only allow the sufferer
to die with dignity but also relieve the burden of suffering and distress for the families
involved.
Situations where the patient is deemed to be brain dead or in a persistent vegetative
state are for some Buddhists the only circumstances in which deliberately ending a
person’s life would be permissible. It could be argued that the person’s quality of life
here does not allow them to reach their full potential. They will never achieve nibbana
as they will never be able to consider and follow Buddhist teachings. Therefore to
deny an end to such a life is only prolonging the suffering for both the patient and the
relatives. Advances in technology have allowed society to keep people alive for much
longer, even though, as the situation indicated, the quality of life is often very poor, or
limited.
Passive euthanasia is allowing a person to die naturally by withholding treatment that
would keep them alive artificially. In doing so no action is taken to bring about death
therefore the action is not unskilful.
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One of Buddha’s disciples committed suicide because he was in great pain. Buddha
did not condemn this disciple, called Channa. Buddha said he:
... used the knife blamelessly.
The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha 116, Wisdom Publications, 1995
In Buddhism there are no fixed rules to obey. There are only skilful actions to be done
as each situation arises, using the precepts as a guide. However, all Buddhists would
agree that, whatever the decision that is taken, minimal pain and suffering should be
the aim. An action that is taken will affect kamma. All actions have results or
consequences. Bad actions bring or accumulate bad kamma, which could lead to more
suffering for a future life. A future ‘rebecoming’ can be affected by this negative
kamma as energy created by the actions in the previous life of a person sets another
life in motion.
The purpose of being born as a human being is to eliminate the sufferings of others
and to bring them happiness.
Lama Thubten Zopa Rinpoche
Note that, when considering euthanasia, ordinary beings have no way of knowing
what kind of existence a person’s (or animal’s) death will lead to – it may lead to even
greater suffering. What we believe, in our ignorance, to be compassion may simply be
our selfish inability to bear another person’s suffering.
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WAR AND PEACE
Section 5: War and peace
Responses to war: Is war ever morally justifiable?
Better than a thousand useless words is one single word that gives peace.
Better than a thousand useless verses is one single verse that gives peace.
Better than a hundred useless poems is one single poem that gives peace.
Dhammapada 100, 101 and 102
Theravada Buddhists teach that killing is always wrong, regardless of any good
intention behind the actions. Buddha said:
With rod and weapon laid aside, gently and kindly, he abides compassionate to all
living beings.
The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha 914, Wisdom Publications, 1995
The Buddhist message is one of peace and non-violence. Buddhists are against war as
it is in direct conflict with the first precept – to abstain from taking a life. Also,
Buddhism advocates a lifestyle of non-violence – ahimsa. In a war, killing is
inevitable and therefore Buddhists would not want to be part of this. Their approach is
one of total pacifism, which some non-Buddhists might see as cowardice. However,
the Buddhist motive not to fight reduces the amount of harm incurred by conflict.
Buddhists generally take a stance of non-resistance in most violent situations.
An enemy can hurt an enemy, and a man who hates can hurt another man: but a
man’s own mind, if wrongly directed, can do him a far greater harm.
Dhammapada 42
According to Buddhism the root of human suffering is caused by people trying to find
happiness through selfish actions. This attitude is called ‘self-cherishing’. As a result
of self-cherishing, some groups of people try to protect their own interests by forcibly
controlling others.
The selfish man who is foolish thinks of nothing but himself and, therefore, the results
are negative, for he arouses resentment, anger and mistrust in others. The selfish man
who is wise, however, thinks of others also, realising that if he helps them, he is
helping himself, for he will meet with a good response and achieve good results.
Dalai Lama
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Buddhism encourages peace and compassion by following the Eightfold Path. It
encourages people to be compassionate towards all living beings. If the whole world
adopted such an approach, Buddhists argue, gradually the world would achieve unity:
a world without war.
The real antidote to terrorism in the long run is compassion, dialogue – peaceful
means – even with terrorists.
Dalai Lama
Thich Nhat Hanh is a Vietnamese monk now living in exile in France. He worked
tirelessly for reconciliation between North and South Vietnam. He championed the
movement known as ‘Engaged Buddhism’.
Every day we do things, we are things that have to do with peace. If we are aware of
our life, … our way of looking at things, we will know how to make peace right in the
moment, we are alive.
Thich Nhat Hanh
However, when placed in a situation of defence a Buddhist might have to consider the
right action and the right intention in a particular situation. In some cases, for
example, it might be better to protect and defend innocent children even if that means
killing an attacker (see the example of the Nazis and the Jewish children a little later).
Mahayana Buddhists, for example, would argue that the motivation for killing should
be considered.
Buddhists may at this point try to employ the teaching of skill in means. The ends
would justify the means. In the situation of killing an attacker to protect innocent
children, both positive and negative kamma would be produced. Killing has kammic
‘weight’ – though this is reduced where the motivation is positive. It would be reduced
even further if compassion for the attacker was part of the motivation.
War involves killing either directly (combat) or indirectly (giving orders). The Noble
Eightfold Path talks of right livelihood, not earning a living at the expense of others,
or causing suffering through occupation. Selling weapons would be included in this.
Sometimes a Buddhist may have to go to war – for example, under conscription. This
is accepted provided the Buddhist has not renounced worldly life, and is therefore duty
bound like every other person.
A Buddhist should never be the aggressor even when protecting themselves. If their
motivation or intention for a violent action is one of love for others and is done in a
completely unselfish manner as well as taking on the full negative kammic
consequences of action, then the action is not necessarily wrong.
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For example if a group of Jewish children came under attack from two Nazi officers, it
would be better to kill the two Nazis in order to save innocent lives, and also to protect
the Nazi officers from the effects of their own kamma.
This idea could be used to justify going to war, although most Buddhists would not
support this. Buddhists would protest against a war and against oppressive regimes
that deny human rights.
An example of this was seen during the Vietnam war in the 1960s and 1970s when
Vietnamese Buddhist monks set fire to themselves to highlight the horror of war. They
followed the example of Thich Quang Doc, whose self-immolation in Saigon on 11
June 1963, was not an anti-war protest but about bringing attention to the repressive
policies of the Catholic Diem regime that controlled the government of South Vietnam
at the time.
Many Buddhists would say that it is better to be killed than to kill. When China
invaded Tibet in 1950, the Tibetan Buddhists offered only peaceful resistance. One
million Tibetans were killed and 6,000 Buddhist monasteries were destroyed.
Although attempting to bring about world peace through the internal transformation
of individuals is difficult, it is the only way.
Dalai Lama
The Dalai Lama also said that when faced with an enemy who is intent on harming
you the best course of action may be to run away. Another statement was that ‘nonviolence takes a long time’ – we may not see the benefits of non-violence in this
lifetime.
Ironically, many martial arts developed out of ahimsa – non-violence. Their aim is to
skilfully disarm the attacker while inflicting no more pain than is absolutely necessary.
Buddhist countries do have small armies with limited resources and training but they
would only be used for civil matters in extreme circumstances.
Finally, there are a few examples of Buddhists engaging in violence, and even war:
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Fourteenth-century Buddhist fighters evicted the Mongols from China.
In Japan, Buddhist monks trained Samurai warriors in meditation to make them
better warriors.
The civil war in Sri Lanka has been fought between the Buddhist Sinhalese (the
majority) and the Hindu Tamil (the minority). This war has cost 50,000 lives.
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Modern armaments: Can the use of any types of modern armaments be
morally justified?
He who hurts with his weapons those who are harmless and pure shall soon fall into
one of these ten evils: fearful pain or infirmity; loss of limbs or terrible disease; or
even madness, the loss of the mind; the king’s persecution; a fearful indictment; the
loss of possessions; or fire from heaven that may burn his house. And when the evildoer is no more, then he is reborn in hell.
Dhammapada 137–140
With regard to modern armaments used in a war, Buddhists look to the five precepts
for guidance. The first precept here would be regarded as the most important: to
abstain from taking a life. This is the principle of ahimsa or non-violence. By
following this precept a Buddhist must abstain from the destruction of life, and
modern armaments are very efficient destroyers of life.
All beings tremble before danger, all fear death. When a man considers this, he does
not kill or cause to kill.
All beings fear before danger, life is dear to all. When a man considers this, he does
not kill or cause to kill.
Dhammapada 129 and 130
Conventional weapons – guns, knives, tanks, ships etc. – are seen as being
manageable weapons in terms of hitting or meeting a target. Although they do incur
death and suffering, a Buddhist may need to consider their use in circumstances of
self-defence. It might perhaps be a skilful action to use conventional weapons to fend
off an attack in order to prevent suffering for a larger number of people. The motive or
intention behind the action would be to act for the greater good. Use of such weapons
for humanitarian reasons would have positive and negative kammic consequences.
However, Buddhists would be less inclined to sanction the use of modern armaments
such as nuclear weapons, chemical weapons and biological warfare. These weapons
cause mass suffering, death and destruction. Weapons such as these have destructive
consequences on the environment too. Buddhists do not see the natural environment as
being something separate from themselves. Buddhists accept that when applying the
principle of ahimsa this includes the whole of the natural world. The skilful action
here would be to never use modern armaments. Using them is not right action or right
intention, nor are the users guided by the principles of wisdom, compassion and loving
kindness for all humanity. Their use could only be born out of delusion that external
sources can bring happiness.
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There is no Buddhist teaching that supports the use of weapons which are actually
designed to disable, maim and kill human beings as a way to resolve conflict.
At all times disarmament is desirable. Buddhism does not sanction violence or the use
of force. Buddhists meditate on loving kindness, not only towards friends, but also
enemies – to be free of hatred and ill-will.
A man is not on the path of righteousness if he settles matters in violent haste. A wise
man calmly considers what is right and what is wrong, and faces different opinions
with truth, non-violence and peace. This man is guarded by truth and is guardian of
truth. He is righteous and he is wise.
Dhammapada 256 and 257
Peace is a quality within Buddhism which is desired by world leaders and
organisations alike. Some see the Buddha’s teaching to return good for evil as
impracticable. However, for peace to be achieved, tolerance must be practised.
An enemy can hurt an enemy, and a man who hates can hurt another man: but a
man’s own mind, if wrongly directed, can do him a far greater harm.
Dhammapada 42
To establish peace and harmony among mankind, everyone must lead a life which
extinguishes greed, hatred and delusion – the Three Mental Poisons. Buddhist ethics
are based on getting rid of the Three Mental Poisons, and this is applied at a wider
level as well as a personal one. These poisons can be seen in the area of the arms
industry where profits are made at the expense of people and the environment.
By following the Noble Eightfold Path and adhering to right livelihood it is important
that a Buddhist should earn a living which does not go against the principle of ahimsa.
Buddhists believe that any occupation or job should be of benefit to others, and not
exploit, endanger and ultimately destroy them.
The Buddhist Peace Fellowship has a long history of working for peace in general,
and towards nuclear disarmament in particular. Since 1978, members have been
present as witnesses for peace at inter-faith vigils and non-violent direct actions at the
Desert Test Site (Nevada), Los Alamos Nuclear Laboratory (New Mexico), Livermore
Laboratory (California), Missile Silo N3 (Colorado) and other locations across the
world.
The Buddhist Peace Fellowship believes that the world’s array of weaponry, both
physical and psychological, is a major source of suffering today.
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However, Buddhism does not necessarily condemn the existence of these weapons. It
can recognise a need to use these as a threat and deterrent from unnecessary attack and
invasion but Buddhists would argue that modern armaments should be used only for
defensive purposes, not offensive ones. And this would be only as a last resort – a
final solution.
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SUGGESTED RESOURCES
Suggested resources
Useful publications
Beck, R. and Worden, D., Truth, Spirituality and Contemporary Issues, Heinemann,
2001
Clarke, S. and Thompson, M., Buddhism: A New Approach, Hodder and Stoughton,
1996
Cole, W.O. (ed.), Moral Issues in Six Religions, Heinemann, 1991
Conze, E., Buddhist Scriptures, Penguin, 1959
Cush, D., Buddhism, Hodder and Stoughton, 1993
Donnellan, C. (ed.), Human and Animal Cloning, Independence, 2004
Donnellan, C. (ed.), The Ethics of Genetic Engineering, Independence
Donnellan, C. (ed.), The Cloning Issue, Independence
Donnellan, C. (ed.), The Wealth Divide, Independence
Donnellan, C. (ed.), Crime and Disorder, Independence, 2005
Donnellan, C. (ed.), The Globalisation Issue, Independence, 2005
Donnellan, C. (ed.), The Ethics of Euthanasia, Independence, 2005
Fleming, M. and Worden, D., Thinking About God and Morality, Heinemann, 2004
Harvey, Peter, An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1990
Harvey, Peter, An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics, Cambridge University Press, 2000
Jenkins, J., Contemporary Moral Issues, Heinemann, 2002
Mascaro, J., The Dhammapada: The Path of Perfection, Penguin, 1973
Rankin, J., Brown A. and Gateshill, P., Ethics and Religions, Longman, 1992
Smith, P. and Worden, D., Key Beliefs, Ultimate Questions and Life Issues,
Heinemann, 2003
Thompson, M., Buddhism: Teach Yourself 101 Key Ideas, McGraw-Hill, 2001
Walker, J., Making Moral Decisions, Hodder Gibson, 2001
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SUGGESTED RESOURCES
Useful websites
www.dharmanet.org
www.buddhanet.net
www.4truths.com
www.samyeling.org
www.fwbo.org
www.sgi-uk.org
www.sgi-usa.org
www.accesstoinsight.org
www.buddhisthospice.org.uk
www.angulimala.org.uk
www.amidatrust.com
www.buddhism.about.com
www.serve.com/cmtan/buddhism
www.edepot.com/buddha.html
www.bbc.co.uk/religion
www.glasgowbuddhistcentre.com
www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Buddhism
www.chezpaul.org.uk/buddhism/uk
www.angulimala.org.uk/angintr.htm
re-xs.ucsm.ac.uk/re/religion/buddhism
www.clear-vision.org/
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